Mechanical testing and engineering application of steel-wood composite beams string structures

Abstract

Increasing the span of large wooden structures raises the risk of brittle failure in the glulam beams’ tensile zone, while the compressive zone materials remain underutilized, resulting in suboptimal structural efficiency and material wastage when constructing large-span wooden roof systems solely with wooden components. The steel-wood composite beam-string structure is a suitable solution for such needs. However, there is still a gap in research regarding the overall mechanical performance of steel-wood composite beam-string structures on a larger scale, with limited attention given to studying their mechanical properties and force mechanisms comprehensively. This paper introduces a steel-wood composite beam-string structure based on a practical engineering project of the Capital Museum East Branch. It includes a detailed analysis of forces and structural calculations, along with static loading tests on a glulam curved beam roof system using beam-string structures. Structural analysis shows that, under frequently occurred earthquake, the maximum inter-story drift of the overall structure is 1/370, with the stress ratio of most components below 0.8. Experimental results indicate that when the load increases to twice the design load, there is a tendency for separation at the connection, but significant damage is not observed. The cross-section generally satisfies the assumption of a plane section. The pre-stressed strands set at the bottom of the wooden beams strengthen the tension zone of the beams, causing the neutral axis of the beams to generally shift towards the tension zone. The experimental findings will inform the museum project and provide useful design insights for similar steel-wood composite beam-string structures.

Keywords

steel-wood composite string beams structures mechanics testing engineering application structural behavior

Introduction

Timber is recognized as an environmentally sustainable and renewable construction material. Lifecycle assessments in construction show that, compared to other building materials, wood and its products have lower energy consumption and produce fewer pollutants during the production process, resulting in minimal adverse environmental impact (Cabeza et al., 2013; Pajchrowski et al., 2014). In contemporary construction practices, timber structures are extensively employed in educational, scientific, cultural, and healthcare facilities, as well as exhibition venues, residential complexes, and office buildings. Notably, timber structures have gained significant engineering applications in large-span public buildings such as sports arenas and exhibition halls (Luo and He, 2024; Wang et al., 2023).

For large-span wooden structures subjected to bending moments, an increasing span heightens vulnerability to brittle failure in the tensile zone of glulam beams, while the compressive zone materials remain underutilized. These issues result in suboptimal structural efficiency and material wastage when constructing large-span wooden roof systems solely with pure wooden components. The steel-wood composite beam-string structure emerges as a pertinent solution for such applications, oversized glued laminated components are adopted as the upper chord primarily tasked with compression. Pre-stressed strands are used in the lower chord and struts are employed to impart an anti-arch effect on the rigid components of the upper chord serves to counteract a portion of the vertical load response. Consequently, this approach can control the size of the upper chord wooden components and adjust the distribution of section stresses. Moreover, beam-string structures demonstrate increased stability along the plane and effectively utilize the compressive strength of wood. In contrast to truss systems, arch. beam-string structures manifest a more streamlined configuration with a relatively less connections. The steel-wood composite beam-string structure is increasingly recognized as the leading structural system in the domain of large-span wooden construction.

Literature review

Large-span timber structures have been widely practiced in various engineering projects. Significantly, the Richmond Olympic Oval, built for the Canadian Winter Olympics, stands as a notable example of this trend. It features a hybrid architectural design that combines glued laminated timber and steel elements, resulting in a striking composite structure with a span of 120 m. Similarly, the Viking ship in Hamar, Norway (Aasheim, 1993) utilized a form of timber truss arch., combining the advantages of arch. and truss structures to achieve a large-span timber roof. Furthermore, the KonoHana Dome and the Tacoma Dome (Harris et al., 2012; Misztal 2018; Robeller et al., 2017) serve as prime examples of innovative approaches by implementing multi-directional single-layer timber grid shell structures.

They indicate a rising level of sophistication in the methodologies employed for constructing large-span timber construction.

Considering the constraints on the transport length of components and factory prefabrication requirements, large-span glulam beams are typically assembled in segments. The connections play a crucial role in influencing the large-span glulam beams. Currently, the dowel-type connection is the most widely used connection form in modern wood structures. Effective research has been conducted by teams such as Zhu et al. (2016), Sun et al. (2017), He et al. (2018), Luo et al. (2022a, 2022b) among others. These teams focused on the bolted connections and, through numerous mechanical performance tests and parameterized finite element analysis, obtained the numerical values of the bearing capacity of connections, and summarized the stiffness characteristics of the connections.

On the other hand, the mechanical model of dowel-type connection is still in a continuously improving stage. Initially, researchers only recognized the yielding failure mode of bolt connections and used the Johansen yield theory (Johansen, 1949) to calculate the load-bearing capacity of connections. Subsequently, researchers made necessary revisions to the calculation formula of the embedment strength, single shear, and double shear strength of connection, forming a relatively complete design method for the dowel-type connection. Numerous experimental studies indicate that the dowel-type connections in wood structures often exhibit brittle failure characteristics (Wataru et al., 2010). Therefore, determining the load-bearing capacity of dowel-type connections in brittle failure is a key focus of research in this type of connection. Zarnani and Quenneville, (2014) and Yurrita et al. (2019) conducted experimental studies on the above issues, continuously refining theoretical models based on experimental data to improve their applicability and accuracy. Currently, to obtain the transverse tensile stress distribution in wood under load, the main theoretical model used is the Elastic Foundation Beam (BEF) model. To obtain the longitudinal shear stress distribution in the connection, the main theoretical models used are the Volkersen model and a theoretical calculation method based on linear elastic fracture mechanics. Jensen and Quenneville (2011) comprehensively used the Elastic Foundation Beam model and a quasi-nonlinear fracture mechanics model to study the composite brittle failure of wood in bolted connections.

The steel-wood composite beam-string structure, consisting of chord wooden arch., chord steel tension cable, and struts, forms an independent structural unit. The force mechanism of this wooden arch. is pivotal for the overall mechanical performance of the structure. Interestingly, the structural concept of the wooden arch. is inspired by the “beam-string structures,” originally utilized in steel structures. Liu (2013) extensively researched the beam-string structures in steel constructions, while Li et al. (1999) conducted vibration table tests on the tensioned beam roof truss at the Shanghai Pudong Airport terminal. Their study focused on the critical influencing factors of structural stiffness, bearing capacity, and seismic performance. Dong (2010), Xue et al. (2013), and other research teams have provided essential recommendations and guidance on key issues such as conceptual distinctions between beam-string structures and other types of prestressed steel structures, as well as the design theory of beam-string structures.

In comparison to steel structures, the investigation into beam-string wood structures is still in its early phases. Zhang et al. (2014) carried out tension tests on five beam-string wood structures, considering two configurations for live load distribution: full span and half span. They analyzed the impact of parameters such as arch-span ratio, vertical span ratio, and initial prestress on structural response. Their findings affirmed that the prestress induced by tensioning could indeed lead to compressive ductile failure in wooden arches under extreme conditions. Sun et al. (2016) conducted a systematic study by comparing two regular laminated wooden beams with eight beam-string wood structures. They explored the influence of key parameters on overall stiffness, flexural carrying capacity, and failure modes of wooden beams. Cao et al. (2020) conducted a comprehensive test on a 30-m span beam-string wood structure with a section height of 600 mm, providing valuable insights for engineering applications. Dietsch and Winter (2018) conducted investigation on 230 large-span timber structures, revealing that the predominant cause of failure in such structures is attributed to grain cracking. Nakajima et al. (2011) undertook experimental investigations on wood tension chord beam structures to examine the impact of stiffness ratio and boundary conditions on structural buckling performance. Farreyre and Journot (2005), through finite element simulation, examined the effects of boundary conditions and geometric parameters on the performance of glued laminated timber truss arch. structures. Munch-Andersen et al. (2011) analyzed the load-bearing characteristics of timber arches, timber trusses, and timber truss arch. structures, highlighting the capacity of timber truss arch. structures to accommodate larger spans. Ronca et al. (1970) conducted static load tests on truss arch. combination structures featuring bolt connections, elucidating the considerable influence of bolt pre-tensioning and eccentric loading on structural behavior.

Presently, there has been considerable research globally on the design of large-span steel-wood composited beams and the analysis of beam-string wood structures, offering valuable insights for the study presented in this paper. Nevertheless, there remains a gap in the research concerning the overall mechanical performance of steel-wood composite beams string structures on a larger scale. Large-scale structural test data in an engineering context is more relevant for reference. Limited attention has been given to the comprehensive study of their mechanical properties and force mechanisms, resulting in minimal guidance for related engineering applications.

Scope and objectives

This paper proposes a steel-wood composite beams string structure based on an actual large-scale museum engineering project. A thorough examination of forces and structural computations was carried out on this structure. Additionally, static loading tests were performed on the glulam curved beam roof system employing beam string structures, recording key parameters such as load-bearing capacity, strain, and displacement. The experimental results will serve as a reference for the large-scale museum project and offer valuable design insights for similar steel-wood composite beam-string structures on a broader scope.

Project overview

Situated in the Tongzhou District of Beijing, the Capital Museum East Branch project (Figure 1) spans a total construction area of 97,000 square meters. The architectural composition of the museum comprises two distinct structures: the primary edifice and a communal hall for civic use. The main building, characterized by three above-ground levels incorporating intermittent mezzanine platforms, reaches a structural elevation of 34.9 m. It is strategically designed to accommodate diverse functionalities, including cultural relic exhibition, preservation, restoration, and storage.

Figure 1.

Building renderings.

In parallel, the communal hall, featuring one above-ground level and an additional subterranean floor, has a structural height of 19.5 m. This particular structure is primarily intended for activities such as guided tours, visitor congregation, and ceremonial events. The architectural design and functional allocation of these buildings underscore the meticulous planning and execution integral to the Capital Museum East Branch project.

The interconnection of the two edifices is facilitated by an elevated corridor and an underground exhibition corridor, which collectively establish the spatial configuration of an expansive museum. An airborne bridge is strategically positioned between the communal hall and the primary edifice, featuring sliding simple supports at both termini, thus enabling complete disengagement between the northern and southern aspects. The communal hall incorporates a steel-wood hybrid grid structure, with column supports systematically aligned along the curtain wall. In contrast, the main building is characterized by a reinforced concrete frame structure, complemented by a large-span steel roof structure, and incorporates seismic isolation technology. The seismic isolation layer is strategically positioned beneath the main building’s subterranean floor, with a vertical extent of 2.1 m. This engineering feature is skillfully utilized to effectively safeguard the museum’s collection of cultural relics, thereby ensuring their structural integrity and preservation in the event of seismic activity.

Structural analysis

Basic information

This study focuses on the structural design of a steel-glulam composite roof. The vertical load-bearing system of the roof consists of roof timber purlins, composite string beams, and frame columns. Vertical loads are transmitted from the roof timber structure purlins to the composite beams and further to the steel structure columns. The design condition of the prototype building is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Design conditions of the steel-glulam composite roof.

	Design conditions	Value
General information	Design life	50 years
General information	Importance factor for structures	1.0
Seismic design	Seismic fortification intensity	8 (0.2 g)
	Design seismic group	Group 2
	Site classification	III
	Design characteristic period of ground motion	0.55 s
	Damping ratio	0.03
Dead load	Floor dead load	2 kN/m²
Live load	Floor live load	0.5 kN/m²
Wind load	Reference wind pressure	0.5 kN/m²
Wind load	Surface roughness	Category B
Snow load	Reference snow pressure	0.45 kN/m²
Snow load	Snow distribution coefficient	1.4
Temperature effect	Cooling load temperature difference	−25°C
Temperature effect	Heating load equivalent temperature difference	20°C

Structural layout

The project adopts a large-span steel-wood composite beam string structures (Figure 1) with a total length of 192.3 m. The structural system consists of 21 beam--string structural units. The beam string structures exhibits variable spans ranging from 41.5 to 32.8 m, with corresponding steel cable sag depths ranging from 3.93 to 2.84 m. The sag-to-span ratio is maintained within the range of 1/10.8 to 1/11.5, and the spacing between main beams is set at 7.8 to 9.2 m.

To meet architectural specifications, the glulam timber beam adopts an unconventional inverted arch. shape. The glulam timber beams feature a rectangular cross-section with dimensions of 500 mm × 1500 mm, adhering to a wood strength grade of TC_T27. Each beam incorporates two steel cables employing steel strands with diameters ranging from 60 to 70 mm and a tensile strength of 1770 MPa. Pre-stressing is applied to the steel strands to mitigate bending moments and deformations within the glulam timber beams. Connection between the steel cables and wood beams is facilitated through the use of steel struts.

Given the concave profile of the upper chord of the string beam, forming an inverted arch., the cable support system is susceptible to instability outward. Consequently, tension rod-type corner braces are strategically positioned on both sides of the struts to ensure the out-of-plane stability of the string beam.

Three dimensional graph of glulam timber composite beam is shown in Figure 2. The glulam timber composite beams are assembled from three sections of glulam timber connected by steel connectors. Pre-stressed strands are arranged in grooves at the bottom of each section of glulam timber beams to apply pre-stress. Additionally, tensioned steel cables are arranged at the bottom of the curved beams to form compression-bending upper chord. The steel columns on both sides are rigidly connected to the foundation or lower concrete structure. Lateral steel braces are placed at intervals to serve as longitudinal lateral resisting members. Steel connections are employed at the points where the steel-wood composite beam meets the steel columns. This integration of steel cables, steel columns, and glulam timber beams establishes a comprehensive model of a steel-wood composite structure, comprising a steel-wood roof and a lower supporting steel structure.

Figure 2.

3D graph of glulam timber composite beam.

Structural calculation

The structural analysis of the large-span steel-wood composite beam string roof structure rack was conducted using the SAP2000 software. The structural model in SAP2000 is presented in Figure 3(a). The material properties of both glulam timber and steel are defined, ensuring that they reflect the actual materials used in the structure. Steel cables, typically positioned at the bottom of the beams to resist tensile forces, are modeled using cable elements and connected to the beams at critical locations. After setting up the structural components, loads such as self-weight, live load, and wind load are applied, and boundary conditions are assigned to ensure realistic constraints. The outcomes of the vibration mode and seismic analysis are as follows: The primary vibration mode exhibits translational motion with a period of 1.07 seconds. The third vibration mode involves torsional motion with a period of 0.91 seconds, and the ratio of the third mode period to the first mode period is less than 0.85. Under frequently occurred earthquake level, the maximum inter-story displacement of the roof structure is 1/370, meeting the specified code requirements (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China, 2017).

Figure 3.

Large-span steel-wood composite beam string roof structure.

Additionally, this study involves the computation of stress ratios for structural components under design earthquake. Figure 3(b) presents a stress ratio cloud chart specifically for roof components under design earthquake. Analysis of the chart reveals that a predominant majority of component stress ratios reside below the threshold of 0.8. Furthermore, under the worst operating condition, the structure exhibits a maximum deflection at its center of 168 mm, constituting a mere 1/223 of the span. This compliance with regulatory standards underscores the efficacy of the structural fortification measures implemented.

Experimental tests

Scope and objectives

The research focuses on a 1:3 scale model of the glulam curved beam, which forms part of the roof structure at the Capital Museum East Branch. Through static loading tests, the study examines the mechanical properties of the beam, including its load-bearing capacity and deformation under roof loads. Concurrently, it monitors the changes in the forces within both the pre-stressed strands at the bottom of the beam and the tensioned steel cables throughout the loading process. The objective is to provide theoretical guidance for the on-site construction and installation of the glulam curved beam roof system at the Capital Museum East Branch.

Specimens and material

The glulam curved beam is constructed by connecting three sections of glulam beams through steel connectors and joining them with glued-in rods. Concurrently, pre-stressed strands are strategically placed in grooves at the bottom of each glulam beam section to apply pre-stress, with each groove measuring 200 mm × 60 mm. Lastly, tensioned steel cables are positioned at the bottom of the curved beam to create the compression-bending upper chord. The wood used for the beams is in accordance with the project specifications. The assembly process of the experimental specimens is depicted in Figure 4. As depicted in Figure 4, the specimen undergoes initial assembly before being hoisted onto the testing platform and precisely positioned. Once positioning is complete, strain gauges are strategically placed near the mid-span as well as at the left and right ends of the beam. Additionally, strain gauges are installed within the grooves of the wooden beams to monitor the pre-stressed strands, along with the tensioned steel cables beneath the chord beams. The wooden beams are subjected to loading using a hydraulic jack, with displacement gauges incorporated to measure deflection.

Figure 4.

Procedure for test specimen assembly.

The reduced-scale curved beam has a total length of 13.82 m, with a wooden beam cross-section height of 750 mm and width of 290 mm. A pre-tension force of 120 kN is applied to each segment of the steel cables during the initial loading. The dimensions of the test specimen are shown in Figures 5 and 6 Which also provides a detailed view of the glued-in rods connections. The glulam timber curved beam is segmented into three parts, linked by two glued-in rods connections. The dimensions, structure, and design of the connections all comply with the specifications.

Figure 5.

Dimensional illustration of the test specimen.

Figure 6.

Detail diagram of the test specimen.

Test setup

The curved beam is placed between three gantry frames, which provide lateral support for the beam. The high-end support of the curved beam is fixed to the gantry frame through a steel base, while the low-end support is designed as a horizontally sliding support. Hanging points are established where the roof beams are arranged, and hydraulic jacks are employed at six hanging points to simulate roof loads. The test setup is illustrated in Figure 7. The test is conducted with incremental loading at 5% intervals of twice the design load. Each loading stage lasts for 1 minute, with 30 seconds dedicated to loading and 30 seconds to holding, continuing until the specimen either fails or reaches a load twice the design capacity. This test is designed to simulate real-world conditions for long-span timber structures. Key data recorded during the loading process include deflections at the mid-span and at the glued-in rod connections, strain distribution at the mid-span of the wooden beam and at both sides of the glued-in rod connections. Additionally, data on strain in the pre-stressed strands at the bottom of the wooden beam, strain in the tensioned steel cables, and horizontal displacement at the support are also recorded. Strain gauges and displacement gauges are arranged as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7.

Test setup.

Figure 8.

Arrangement of strain gauges and displacement gauges.

Experimental results

Deformation of the beam-string structure under load

Figure 9(a) displays the load-deformation curves at the locations of two glued-in rod connections (W1, W3) and at the mid-span point (W2) of the glulam curved beam. As shown in Figure 9(a), the load and deflection demonstrate a linear growth relationship, suggesting that the arched beam maintains an elastic state during the loading process. Even when the load is increased to twice the design load (a single-point load of 68 kN), there is no apparent damage or failure in the beam, indicating sufficient load-bearing capacity. Local discontinuities and jumps in the data points are observed on the curve. This can be mainly attributed to the experimental loading method, where six hydraulic jacks are manually controlled in a coordinated manner. Achieving precise synchronization at each loading stage proves challenging, resulting in some data points displaying discontinuities.

Figure 9.

The deformation of the beam-string structure under load.

Figure 9(a) also illustrates the variation in horizontal displacement of the sliding support under different load levels. As shown in Figure 9(a), the horizontal displacement of the sliding support shows a linear growth trend with increasing load. However, the horizontal displacement of the support is relatively small. This suggests that the significant deformation of the curved beam may not be attributed to support sliding but could be due to other factors, such as lower-than-intended pre-tension in the strands or limited elasticity of the wood material.

Figure 9(b) shows the vertical displacement distribution at different locations along the glulam curved beam under various load levels. As seen in Figure 9(b), vertical loading results in a parabolic distribution of vertical displacement along the horizontal projection of the curved beam, with the peak displacement occurring at the mid-span of the beam. In general, the curved beam shows significant deformation, potentially attributed to the lower-than-intended pre-tension applied to the strands at the bottom of the beam during specimen assembly. Additionally, during the loading process, there is an observed tendency for separation at the lower end of the glued-in rods connections. Therefore, it is recommended to appropriately increase the pre-tension level of the prestressed strands to effectively control the deformation under vertical loading of the curved beam.

Strain of the beam-string structure under load

Figure 10(a) illustrates the correlation between the strain in the steel cables and the levels of load. As observed in Figure 10(a), generally, there is a minimal difference in strain between the two steel cables, suggesting effective coordination between the dual steel cables. The strain in the steel cables demonstrates a linear proportional increase with the levels of load. As the load escalates from zero to twice the design load, the average strain in the steel cables increases by approximately 700 με.

Figure 10.

The strain of the beam-string structure under load.

Figure 10(b) illustrates the correlation between the strain of prestressed strands and the levels of load at different locations. In general, the strain values of all prestressed strands exhibit a linear increase with the levels of load. Under the same load, the strain values of the prestressed strands at the left and right end beams are relatively similar, while the strain in the prestressed strands at the middle section of the beam is significantly higher than those at the two ends. Additionally, comparing Figure 10(b) with Figure 10(a), the strain in the prestressed strands at the bottom of the beam is only 30% of the strain in the steel cables. For large-span steel-wood composite structures, the upward curvature of the wooden arch. structure causes the prestressed strands to have a shape similar to the curve of the wooden beam, resulting in smaller force components in the prestressed strands.

Figure 10(c) presents the distribution of strains along the height of the cross-section of the wooden beam at different load levels. As shown in Figure 10(c), the distribution of strains along the height of the beam’s cross-section generally follows a linear pattern, indicating that the cross-section satisfies the assumption that “plane sections remain plane”. Moreover, it is evident from the graph that, it can be observed that, under the same load level, the absolute value of the strain in the compression zone of the wooden beam is greater than the absolute value of the strain in the tension zone. This means that the overall position of the neutral axis of the beam tends to be in the tension zone. This is mainly due to the presence of prestressed strands at the bottom of the wooden beam, which enhances the tension zone of the beam, resulting in smaller strain values in that region.

Conclusions

This research endeavors to introduce a large-span steel-wood composite beam string structure tailored for the practical engineering project of the Capital Museum East Branch. The structure encompasses variable spans, ranging from 41.5 to 32.8 m. Notably, the steel-glulam composite roof comprises 21 distinct beam-string structural units. The study systematically engages in holistic structural analysis and static loading experiments on scaled models. The main content and summarized research findings of the paper are as follows:

1) The comprehensive structural analysis reveals that, under frequently occurred earthquake, the maximum inter-story displacement of the roof structure is 1/370, meeting the specified code requirements. Under design earthquake,a substantial proportion of structural elements maintain stress ratios below 0.8. Under the worst operating condition, the structure exhibits its maximum deflection at the center of the wooden beam span, measuring 168 mm. This underscores the commendable seismic and load-bearing capabilities inherent in the newly proposed steel-wood composite beam string structures presented in this study.

2) Static loading tests indicate that the load and deflection of steel-wood composite beam string structures exhibit a roughly linear growth relationship, suggesting that the curved beams remain predominantly in an elastic state throughout the loading process. Even when the load is increased to twice the design load, there is no apparent damage or failure in the curved beams, highlighting their robust load-bearing capacity.

3) Under vertical loading, the strain difference between the two tensioned cables is minimal, indicating the effective collaboration of the dual cables, and their strain exhibits a linear proportional growth relationship with the load levels. The vertical deflection follows a parabolic distribution pattern along the horizontal projection of the curved beam. Additionally, during the loading process, there is a tendency for separation at the lower end of the glued-in rods connections. Therefore, it is recommended to appropriately increase the pre-tension level of the strands to effectively control the deformation of the curved beam under vertical loading.

4) The strain distribution along the height of the mid-span section of the wooden beam generally exhibits a linear pattern, indicating overall compliance with the assumption that ‘plane sections remain plane.’ Under vertical loading, the horizontal displacement of the supports is relatively small. This suggests that the significant deflection deformation of the curved beam is not primarily due to support sliding but may be attributed to other factors, such as lower-than-optimal pre-tension levels in the pre-stressed strands or the characteristics of the wood material.

5) It is suggested to appropriately increase the pre-tension levels of the pre-stressed strands at the bottom of the curved beam. Additionally, inserting self-tapping screws along the grain direction at the anchorage locations of the pre-stressed strands at the bottom of the curved beam is recommended to enhance the longitudinal compressive resistance of the wood, aiming to improve the overall deformation resistance of the spliced curved beam with tensioned cords.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant NO. 52378256, 52308268) and Shanghai Sailing Program (Grant No. 23YF1430900).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52378256, 52308268) and Shanghai Sailing Program (Grant No. 23YF1430900).

ORCID iDs

Minjuan He

Jing Luo

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