On 14th August 2007, Portugal instituted a smoking ban in most indoor public places. The goal of this work was to quantify the effects of this ban on indoor air quality (IAQ) in Portuguese restaurants. Ten restaurants were investigated before and after the ban and the following indoor parameters measured: respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP), total volatile organic compounds (TVOC), benzene (C6H6), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), temperature and relative humidity. Results show a statistically significant decrease in RSP and CO concentrations after the ban, as well as for TVOC and benzene concentrations. Additionally, the monitored CO2 concentrations widely exceeded 1800 mgċm−3 (reference for acceptable ventilation rates), suggesting inefficient ventilation of the indoor spaces. This paper provides the first comparison of IAQ in Portugal before and after the introduction of smoke-free law and these results confirm the positive impact of the law in the indoor air that became smoke-free after the legislation. This information should be provided to decision makers as it has significant health implications. This law thus appear to achieve the aim of protecting people from exposure to unwanted pollutants resulting from poor IAQ.
BolteGHeitmannDKiranogluMSchierlRDiemerJKoernerWFrommeH: Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in German restaurants, pubs and discotheques: J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol2008;18:262–271.
2.
NebotMLopezMJGoriniGNeubergerMAxelssonSPilaliMFonsecaCAbdennbiKHackshawAMoshammerHLaurentAMSallesJGeorgouliMFondelliMCSerrahimaECentrichFHammondSK: Environmental tobacco smoke exposure in public places of European cities: Tob Control2005;14:60–63.
3.
CenkoCPisanielloDEstermanA: A study of environmental tobacco smoke in south Australian pubs, clubs and cafes: Int J Environ Health Res2004;14:3–11.
4.
JohnssonTTuomiTHyvarinenMSvinhufvudJRothbergMReijulaK: Occupational exposure of non-smoking restaurant personnel to environmental tobacco smoke in Finland: Am J Ind Med2003;43:523–531.
5.
ScolloMLalAHylandAGlantzS: Review of the quality of studies on the economic effects of smoke-free policies on the hospitality industry: Tob Control2003;12:13–20.
6.
SeigelMSkeerM: Exposure to second-hand smoke and excess lung cancer mortality risk among workers in the ‘5B's': bars, bowling alleys billiard halls, betting establishments and bingo parlours: Tob Control2003;12:333–338.
7.
BatesMNFawcettJDicksonSBerezowskiRGarrettN: Exposure of hospitality workers to environmental tobacco smoke: Tob Control2002;11:125–129.
8.
BranisMRezacovaPGuignonN: Fine particles (PM1) in four different indoor environments: Indoor Built Environ2002;11:184–190.
9.
DinglePTapsellPTremainsITanR: Environmental tobacco smoke and ventilation in 20 social venues in Perth, Western Australia: Indoor Built Environ2002;11:146–152.
10.
MaskarinecMPJenkinsRACountsRWDindalAB: Determination of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in restaurant and tavern workers in one US city: J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol2000;10:36–49.
11.
JenkinsRACountsRW: Occupational exposure to environmental tobacco smoke: results of two personal exposure studies: Environ Health Perspect1999;107:341–348.
12.
MulcahyMByrneMARuprechtA: How does the Irish smoking ban measure up. A before and after study of particle concentrations in Irish pubs: J Indoor Air2005;5:15–86.
13.
SpinneyL: Public smoking bans show signs of success in Europe: Lancet2007;369:1507–1508.
14.
GallusSZuccaroPColomboPApoloneGPacificiRGarattiniSLa VecchiaC: Effects of new smoking regulations in Italy: Ann Oncol2006;17:346–347.
15.
GeeILWatsonAFRCarringtonJ: The contribution of environmental tobacco smoke to indoor air pollution in pubs and bars: Indoor Built Environ2005;14(3–4):301–306.
16.
RepaceJL: Respirable particles and carcinogens in the air of Delaware hospitality venues before and after a smoking ban: J Occup Environ Med2004;46:887–905.
17.
RepaceJL: An Air Quality Survey of Respirable Particles and Particulate Carcinogens in Delaware Hospitality Venues Before and After a Smoking Ban. Bowie, Maryland, Repace Associates, 2003.
18.
OttWSwitzerPRobinsonJ: Particle concentrations inside a tavern before and after prohibition of smoking: Evaluating the performance of an indoor air quality model: J Air Waste Manage Assoc1996;46:1120–1134.
19.
GoriniGMoshammerHSbrogiLGasparriniANebotMNeubergerMTamangELopezMJGaleoneDSerrahimaE: Italy and Austria before and after study: second-hand smoke exposure in hospitality premises before and after 2 years from the introduction of the Italian smoking ban: Indoor Air2008;18:328–334.
20.
GoodmanPAgnewMMcCaffreyMPaulGClancyL: Effects of the Irish smoking ban on respiratory health of bar workers and air quality in Dublin pubs: Am J Respir Crit Care Med2007;175:840–845.
21.
MenziesDNairAWilliamsonPASchembriSAl-KhairallaMZBarnesMFardonTCMcFarlaneLMageeGJLipworthBJ: Respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function, and markers of inflammation among bar workers before and after a legislative ban on smoking in public places: JAMA2006;296:1742–1748.
22.
SargentRPShepardRMGlantzSA: Reduced incidence of admissions for myocardial infarction associated with public smoking ban: before and after study: BMJ2004;328:977–980.
23.
EisnerMDSmithAKBlancPD: Bartenders' respiratory health after establishment of smoke-free bars and taverns: JAMA1998;280:1909–1914.
24.
LeeKHahnEJPieperNOkoliCTCRepaceJTroutmanA: Differential impacts of smoke-free laws on indoor air quality: J Environ Health2008;70:24–30.
25.
SempleSCreelyKSNajiAMillerBGAyresJG: Secondhand smoke levels in Scottish pubs: the effect of smoke-free legislation: Tob Control2007;16:127–132.
26.
ValentePForastiereFBacosiACattaniGDi CarloSFerriM: Exposure to fine and ultrafine particles from secondhand smoke in public places before and after the smoking ban, Italy 2005: Tob Control2007;16:312–317.
27.
Law 37/2007 of 14th August (2008), Lei que aprova normas para a protecção dos cidadãos da exposição involuntária ao fumo do tabaco e medidas de redução da procura relacionadas com a dependência e a cessação do seu consumo. PortuguesaR., Editor. 2007, Portugal, 1 de Janeiro2008.
28.
NP EN ISO/IEC 17025: General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories, 2005.
29.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health): NMAM-Manual of Analytical Methods. Cincinnati, OH, NIOSH, 1994.
30.
ECA (European Concerted Action Indoor air quality and its impact on man, COST Project 613): Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) in indoor air quality investigations. Report no 19, EUR 17675 EN. Office for Official publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1997.
31.
US EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency): Exposure Factors Handbook. Vol. 1General Factors: US EPA. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office, 1997.
NRC (National Research Council): Environmental tobacco smoke measuring exposures and assessing health effects: Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1986.
IEE (Institute of Environmental Epidemiology): Guidelines for Good Indoor Air Quality in Office Premises, 1st edn. Singapore, Ministry of the Environment, 1996, p. 47.
36.
SchneiderPGebefügiIRichterKWölkeGSchnelleJWichmannHEHeinrichJ: Indoor and outdoor BTX levels in German cities: Sci Total Environ2001;267:41–51.
37.
ShieldsHCFleischerDMWeschlerDJ: Comparison among VOCs measured in three types of US commercial buildings with different occupant densities: Indoor Air1996;6:2–17.
38.
WallaceLPellizzariEWendelC: Total volatile organic concentrations in 2700 personal, indoor, and outdoor air samples collected in the US EPA team studies: Indoor Air1991;4:465–477.
39.
WHO (World Health Organization): Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, 2nd edn. Copenhagen, Denmark, WHO Regional Publications, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2000.
40.
Directive 2000/69/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 16 November 2000 relating to limit values for benzene and carbon monoxide in ambient air, Official J Euro Comm, 2000.
41.
Bruinen de BruinYCarrerPJantunenMHanninenOScotto di MarcoGKephalopoulosS: Personal carbon monoxide exposure levels: contribution of local sources to exposures and microenvironment concentrations in Milan: J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol2004;14:312–322.
42.
SchneiderSSeiboldBSchunkSJentzschEPotschke-LangerMDreslerCTraversMJHylandA: Exposure to secondhand smoke in Germany: air contamination due to smoking in German restaurants, bars, and other venues: Nicotine Tob Res2008;10:547–555.
43.
TraversMJCummingsKMHylandARepaceJBabbSPechacekTCaraballoR: Indoor air quality in hospitality venues before and after implementation of a clean indoor air law-Western New York, 2003: Morb Mortal Wkly Rep2004;53:1038–1041.
44.
AbramsSMMahoneyMCHylandA: Early evidence on the effectiveness of clean indoor air legislation in New York State: Am J Public Health2006;96:296–298.
45.
GeeILWatsonFRCarringtonJ: Second-hand smoke levels in UK pubs and bars: do the English Public Health White Paper proposals go far enough?: J Public Health2006;1:17–23.
46.
ConnollyGNCarpenterCAlpertHRSkeerMTraversM: Evaluation of the massachusetts smoke-free workplace law, a preliminary report. Harvard School of Public Health, Tobacco Research Program, 2005. Available at: http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/php/pri/tcrtp/Smoke-free_Workplace.pdf. Accessed at 10/July/2010.
47.
WaringMSSiegelJA: An evaluation of the indoor air quality in bars before and after a smoking ban in Austin, Texas: J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol2007;17:260–268.
48.
LeeSCLiWMChanLY: Indoor air quality at restaurants with different style of cooking in metropolitan Hong Kong: Sci Total Environ2001;279:181–193.
49.
BaekSOKimYSPerryR: Indoor air quality in homes, offices and restaurants in Korean urban areas-indoor/outdoor relationships: Atmos Environ1997;31:529–544.
50.
BaekSOJenkinsRA: Characterization of trace organic compounds associated with aged and diluted sidestream tobacco smoke in a controlled atmosphere – volatile organic compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Atmos Environ2004;38:6583–6599.
51.
GhasemkhaniMNaseriF: Comparison of indoor air quality in restaurant kitchens in Tehran with ambient air quality: Iran J Health Sci Eng2008;5:59–64.
52.
KuoNWChiangGC: Development and application of an integrated indoor air quality audit to an international hotel building in Taiwan: Environ Monit Assess2008;147:139–147.
53.
GuerinMRJenkinsRATomkinsBA: The Chemistry of Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Composition and Measurement. Boca Raton, FL, Lewis Publishers, 1992.
54.
KlepeisNEOttWRRepaceJL: The effect of cigar smoking on indoor levels of carbon monoxide and particles: J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol; 1999;9:622–635.
55.
RSECE (Regulamento dos Sistemas Energéticos de Climatização dos Edifícios)in Decreto-Lei n° 79/2006 de 4 de Abril, M.d.O.P.T.e.C. (MOPTC), Editor, Portugal, 2006.
56.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers): Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality: Atlanta, GA, ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004, 2004.
57.
CarringtonJWatsonAFRGeeIL: The effects of smoking status and ventilation on environmental tobacco smoke concentrations in public areas of UK pubs and bars: Atmos Environ2003;37:3255–3266.
58.
LeeSCChanLYChiuMY: Indoor and outdoor air quality investigation at 14 public spaces in Hong Kong: Environ Int1999;25:443–450.
59.
Akbar-KhanzadehFTanYBrownENAkbar-KhanzadehM: An evaluation of ventilation system flow rates and levels of carbon dioxide, ambient temperature and relative humidity in restaurants: Appl Occup Environ Hyg2002;17:640–647.
60.
MilzSAkbar-KhanzadehFAmesASpinoSTexCLanzaK: Indoor air quality in restaurants with and without designated smoking rooms: J Occup Environ Hyg2007;4:246–252.
61.
RepaceJLLowreyAH: Indoor air-pollution, tobacco-smoke, and public health: Science1980;208:464–472.
62.
AHSRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers): Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy: Atlanta, GA, ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, 1992.
63.
BorlandRYongHHSiahpushMHylandACampbellSHastingsGCummingsKMFongGT: Support for and reported compliance with smoke-free restaurants and bars by smokers in four countries: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) FourCountry Survey: Tob Control2006;15: 34–41.
64.
AlamarBGlantzSA: Effect of smoke-free laws on bar value and profits: Am J Public Health2007;97:1400–1402.
65.
LukRFerrenceRGmelG: The economic impact of a smoke-free bylaw on restaurant and bar sales in Ottawa, Canada: Addiction2006;101:738–745.
66.
OngMKGlantzSA: Cardiovascular health and economic effects of smoke-free workplaces: Am J Med2004;117:32–38.
