Exploring the perception of forensic science among police investigators in Nigeria: The role of sociodemographic markers

Abstract

Underlining the application of forensic science methods in police investigations is investigators’ perceptions of the methods. The premise is that a positive perception indicates a willingness to apply forensic science in criminal investigations, regardless of prior forensic training. This study compared common sociodemographic markers with regard to perceptions of forensic science application in criminal investigations among investigating police officers in Nigeria, controlling for forensic training. The six sociodemographic markers were: gender, age, marital status, highest educational qualification, rank, and years in service. The survey used a self-administered questionnaire for data collection. Based on a total population of 3771 investigating police officers, a sample size of 347 was determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s formula (Krejcie RV and Morgan DW (1970) Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement 30(3): 607–610). A potential 20% dropout rate was added giving a sample size of 416. No difference was found across the sociodemographic markers with regards to the perception of forensic science utilization in criminal investigations (p > .05), except for the highest educational qualification (p = .008) and rank (p = .042) of the respondents. The perception score was higher in the primary school category than in the secondary school and diploma certificate categories. Comparison between the categories secondary certificate and degree/HND certificate indicated a statistically significant lower perception score in the secondary certificate category. The perception score was lower in the diploma category than in the degree/HND certificate and postgraduate categories. For police rank, pairwise comparison showed that the officer category had a higher perception score than the constable category. There was also a statistically significant higher perception of forensic science among inspectors than among constables. It is recommended that educational qualification and rank should be considered when deploying police personnel to the criminal investigation department.

Keywords

Sociodemographic markers police perception Nigeria Police police investigators perception of forensic science forensic investigation criminal investigation

Introduction

Forensic science is a systematic approach to the examination, treatment, and interpretation of material evidence from a scientific perspective with due consideration given to legal requirements (Leung, 2006). Forensic science comprises a group of scientific disciplines that are concerned with application of their area of expertise to law enforcement, criminal, civil, legal, and judicial matters (Prahlow, 2010). It includes such fields as DNA analysis, pathology, odontology, anthropology, trace evidence, psychology, computer science, and forensic psychiatry among others (Cardinetti and Cammarota, 2005). For decades, application of forensic science has assisted the police in solving different types of cases more fairly and reliably, despite its shortcomings and the challenges it faces (White et al., 2011). Issues affecting the use of forensic science in police organizations can be rooted in an individual’s culture, organizational setting, the social psychology of officers (for example, their perception of forensic science), or their sociodemographic profiles.

Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both distinguishing environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. It is through perceptual development that individuals understand their environment and decide how to act within it to ensure their survival (Michener et al., 2004). In other words, an individual’s perception of a phenomenon influences his or her behavioral patterns toward it.

Behavioral science research has found evidence of the influence of sociodemographic variables on different aspects of human behavior (Garner and Maxwell, 2002; Odedokun, 2015; Paoline and Terrill, 2007). This research includes studies conducted on both general patterns of behavior and actions specific to a certain condition, situation, or phenomenon. For example, researchers in industrial and organizational behavior have studied how sociodemographic markers influence employees’ perceptions of their work, particularly as related to the introduction of a new decision by their employers (Domingo and Garganté, 2016).

Although police organizational behavior has been previously studied (Garner and Maxwell, 2002; Ojedokun, 2008; Paoline and Terrill, 2007), little has been done to explore how the sociodemographic markers of police officers, particularly investigating police officers (IPOs), affect their perceptions of forensic science, and perhaps, the resultant behavior related to its utilization. According to Mousseau et al. (2019), very few studies have addressed the issue of how police perceive the role, utility, and limitations of forensic science. This study was therefore an effort towards improving the dearth of research in this area. It was aimed at investigating the relationship between some common sociodemographic markers—gender, age, marital status, educational qualification, rank, and years in service—of IPOs in Nigeria and their perceptions of utilizing forensic science in criminal investigations.

Forensic science was adopted as part of the Nigeria Police working practices in 1986. However, it seems that certain issues affect the proper utilization of forensic techniques. There are only two police forensic laboratories in Nigeria (Nigeria Police Force, 2018), despite the country’s large population (National Population Commission, 2018) and high crime rates (National Bureau of Statistics, 2017). Owing to the central role of IPOs in utilizing forensic science within the police agency, officers’ perceptions could have a role in the proper and adequate utilization of forensic science techniques by the Nigeria Police. The way police perceive and admire forensic science is thus crucial in setting the scene for the appropriate integration of forensic science into the police system. As highlighted earlier, IPOs’ perceptions could be influenced by their sociodemographic profiles. Sociodemographic profiles are sometimes natural and unavoidable, but could be manipulated and modified to suit a particular situation. Hence, they remain relevant in studies dealing with human social psychology and behavior.

Major implications of this study are its potential to highlight dependable operational procedures, serve as a reference in creating recruitment and posting profiling frameworks, as well as generating information that could help law enforcement agencies. Specifically, the benefits of this study apply to the Nigeria Police and similar organizations elsewhere in their efforts to properly manage personnel for effective criminal investigations, policing jobs and ultimately improved crime prevention and societal control.

To achieve the aims of the study, a research question was asked: “Do IPOs’ perceptions of forensic science differ by sociodemographic markers, with the effect of the forensic training attended being controlled?”. The sociodemographic markers investigated were gender, age, marital status, highest educational qualification, rank, and years in service. Accordingly, six hypotheses were formulated to test the differences. The null hypotheses are stated thus:

H₀1: there is no difference in the perception of forensic science between the categories of IPO gender when forensic training attended was controlled.

H₀2: there is no difference in the perception of forensic science among the categories of IPO age when forensic training attended was controlled.

H₀3: there is no difference in the perception of forensic science among the categories of IPO marital status when forensic training attended was controlled.

H₀4: there is no difference in the perception of forensic science among the categories of IPO highest educational qualification when forensic training attended was controlled.

H₀5: there is no difference in perception of forensic science among the categories of IPO rank when forensic training attended was controlled.

H₀6: there is no difference in perception of forensic science among the categories of IPO years spent in service when forensic training attended was controlled.

Literature review

Perception of forensic science

Perception encompasses the construction of an understanding of the social world from the data individuals obtain through their senses (Michener et al., 2004). It is the process through which people select, organize, and interpret sensory stimulations into meaningful information about their worlds: the psychological mechanism that enables individuals to understand their environment (Rao and Narayana, 1998). The perception of forensic science is thus seen as the nature of an individual’s view and understanding as either favorable or otherwise of certain features of forensic science, namely, reliability, intelligibility, compatibility, and validity. These features play important role in satisfying both the scientific and legal requirements for objectivity and relevance of forensic material, which are critical concepts associated with forensic evaluation (Ballantyne and Wilson-Wilde, 2020; National Research Council, 2009).

The concepts of reliability and validity of forensic science have been discussed and emphasized previously (Ballantyne and Wilson-Wilde, 2020; Morrison, 2011; Stern et al., 2019). According to Stern et al. (2019), for instance, reliability implies the consistency of results or conclusions which are arrived at through a reliable process. It is seen as synonymous with precision (Morrison, 2011). The perception of forensic “reliability” refers to the view of individuals about the preciseness and consistency of results from forensic investigation processes. However, validity, in both scientific and statistical discourse, is concerned with the accuracy of results or conclusions; that is, it tries to understand or establish whether “a valid measurement process accurately measures what it is intended to measure” (Stern et al., 2019: 22). Consequently, the inquiry behind the concept of forensic validity is whether the processes of forensic science applied in criminal investigations follow the scientific method and represent anything of value, and the conclusion drawn from the outcome is the valid explanation of the phenomenon under scrutiny. Accordingly, the perception of forensic “validity” deals with the nature of individuals’ views on the correctness of forensic science results (Stratton, 2015).

According to Ballantyne and Wilson-Wilde (2020), for forensic science results to achieve validity and reliability, two overarching requirements must be fulfilled, the method utilized to arrive at the result should be: (a) valid and (b) applied in a reliable way by a competent expert. In other words, validity and reliability could be ensured when certain interrelated issues are considered while dealing with forensic results; these issues are independent accreditation to international standards regarding laboratory processes, adherence to national and international standards of methodology as well as individual competency testing of practitioners. The ultimate advantage of validity and reliability is their potential strengthening of the objectivity and utility of the outcome of forensic investigations (Ballantyne and Wilson-Wilde, 2020).

Forensic “intelligibility” refers to the ease of understanding forensic science methods and techniques. It is similar to complexity, that is, the degree to which an innovation is difficult to use or understand (Kaminski, 2011; Rogers, 2003). Talking about the utility of evidence, intelligibility is one of the three conditions that a trace or evidence must fulfil for it to be considered useful. The other two conditions are its connectedness to the case and its ability to shed more light without being redundant (Bitzer et al., 2015). Therefore, the inquiry into the perception of forensic intelligibility is about the individual’s view of the simplicity of forensic science methods and techniques, that is, the perception of ease of use. According to Davis (1989: 320), the perception of ease of use is the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort. Although there is no effortless activity in a real sense, easiness refers to the “freedom from difficulty or great effort”.

“Compatibility” encompasses the extent to which forensic science methods and techniques agree with respondents’ cultural and religious beliefs; that is, whether individuals perceive forensic science to be consistent with their known and accepted ideas or perceived needs (Kaminski, 2011; Rogers, 2003). Compatibility (together with observability, relative advantage, trialability, and complexity) determines the acceptance of new ideas or innovations (Rogers, 2003). Hence, the concept of compatibility is crucial in discourses involving the perception, acceptance, and even utilization of forensic science.

Some individuals, and even scholars, see specific scientific ideas and practices as conflicting with religious principles, whereas others believe that science and religion are complementary (Longest and Smith, 2011). As a result of this premise, an individual’s perception of scientific knowledge or practice may be affected by how consistent the knowledge and practices are with an individual’s beliefs and on which side of the argument the individual is (Mansour, 2011). Indeed, the question of compatibility when dealing with a scientific idea or innovation could be critical in a very religious or traditional setting, or in an organization in which the innovations are entirely novel to the system.

Perception and police behavior

The underlying assumption in mainstream social cognition studies is that the path from perception to behavior is often automatic and direct (Perugini and Prestwich, 2007). Through perceptual progression, individuals acquire information about the properties and elements of an environment that are important to their survival, contemplate, and act accordingly within that environment, in other words, the way in which an individual perceives someone or something, and the way he or she behaves and acts towards that person or thing (Perugini and Prestwich, 2007). Employees’ perceptions of organizational resources and practices may, therefore, predict their attitudes and behaviors toward those resources or practices (Nishii et al., 2008; Paauwe, 2009). Alfes et al. (2013), for example, reported how perception could make employees engage in either positive or negative organizational practices. The authors found that employees’ positive perceptions of organizational resources management were likely to make them engage with their work and to remain within the organization.

In line with the above argument, the perception of employees regarding the observability, relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, and complexity of a new idea or way of doing things determines whether employees accept or reject that innovation (Rogers, 2003). Earlier, Davis (1989) argued that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are reasons for individuals to accept or reject information technology. The more favorable an individual’s perception of the characteristics related to an idea, innovation, or new way of doing things, the higher the likelihood of their acceptance. Negative perceptions could therefore lead to rejection of the phenomenon. Perception of something is based on personal expectations or experiences of specific qualities, which individuals see as either favorable or otherwise.

By contrast, some studies (Goetschel and Peha, 2017; Mansour, 2011; Van Volkom et al., 2013) have shown how perception could differ as a result of individual differences arising from sociodemographic factors, not just personal expectations or experience (Den Hartog et al., 2004; Perugini and Prestwich, 2007). For instance, someone with a higher education level or greater training in a particular technology may perceive the intelligibility or reliability of that technology more favorably than someone with less education or training on that same technology. Religiosity may also cause differences in individuals’ perceptions of compatibility.

This fact notwithstanding, many of the available studies dealing with the perception of forensic science have focused on specific fields of forensic science, used samples other than police officers, or did not prioritize the role of sociodemographic variables. For example, Zadeh and Ramazani (2012) studied accountants’ perceptions of forensic accounting without considering the effect of the respondents’ sociodemographic characteristics. Lieberman et al. (2008) compared public perceptions, undergraduate students and former jurors, and not police officers, on the superiority of DNA evidence. A similar study on fingerprint evidence was conducted with laypersons and lawyers as respondents (Garrett and Mitchell, 2016). Studies on perceptions of the forensic reliability of DNA (Hans et al., 2011) and other types of forensic evidence have also been conducted using jury and community members (Ribeiro et al., 2019), respectively. Although Woodman et al. (2020) surveyed police respondents to understand how they perceived and used chemical trace evidence, specific consideration was not given to the role of sociodemographic markers.

Nevertheless, police systems that are just beginning to integrate forensic science into their work need to understand perceptual and behavioral issues that could affect the proper and effective means of accepting and utilizing forensic ideas in the first place. Consequently, the perception of forensic science in police organizations requires further exploration to understand critical concerns related to it. Such studies could likely assist police organizations in planning and crime management. By determining the nature of police perceptions of forensic science and its interrelatedness with other factors, for example, sociodemographic markers as in this study, gaps in current knowledge could be reduced. Police organizations could use the outcome of this study to better their preparedness in forensic science utilization. These arguments further the justifications for conducting this study.

Sociodemographic markers, police perception, and behavior

Sociodemographic markers are certain characteristics of individuals that have their basis in the social and demographic conditions of the individuals, and are either inherent or acquired. Examples of sociodemographic markers include age, race, ethnicity, gender, income, and language. Because they affect the dynamics of human attitude and behavior, a large and growing body of evidence shows that sociodemographic markers could influence police perception and behavior. The sociodemographic markers considered in this study are gender, age, marital status, educational qualification, rank, years spent in service and training.

Gender

In line with changes in traditional gender roles and numerous findings on women’s performance levels being similar to those of men, previous studies have reported females perceiving themselves as good as males in carrying out all law enforcement tasks (Kakar, 2002), including patrol (Rabe-Hemp, 2009), maintaining authority, and using force (Garner and Maxwell, 2002; Paoline and Terrill, 2007; Rabe-Hemp and Schuck, 2007). Yet, differences in perceptions of personal safety and confidence in a forensic psychiatric setting have been observed between male and female clinicians (Martin and Daffern, 2006). Also, female analysts were found to be more likely than male analysts to indicate a lack of awareness about error rates in forensic science, although there was no significant difference in attitudes towards the acceptability of the error (Murrie et al., 2019).

In a study investigating the use of deadly force by police officers, McElvain and Kposowa (2008) found that males were more likely than females to use force. The presence of negative attitudes and perceptions towards the use of force as officers underlies the willingness to use it. Extrapolating from this, male officers may have negative attitudes and perceptions towards the use of forensic science compared with female officers because the application of forensic science does not need deadly force. In other words, female officers may have more favorable view of forensic science than their male counterparts.

Age

Age has been reported to influence different aspects of police behavior. For example, Machado and Silva (2015) found that disagreement with the benefits of the national forensic DNA database seemed to be more common among the oldest participants, indicating an inverse relationship between age and perceptions of forensic usefulness. Murrie et al. (2019) found that older analysts estimated that types of forensic error occurred more frequently than did younger analysts. Younger police personnel showed a positive attitude towards unethical behavior, whereas older officers indicated a negative attitude (Ojedokun, 2008). Similarly, Afolabi and Omole (2011) found that older officers scored higher on a professional ethics scale than younger officers. Ethical behavior comprises all behaviors that conform with the ethics of law enforcement practice and thus help in discharging effectively the functions required of the enforcement agency to achieve integrity (Andreescu et al., 2012). Perceptions of organizational resources like forensic science fall within the purview of ethics in the police organization because its utilization assists the police in strengthening its integrity. In other words, a positive attitude towards ethical behavior may signify a positive perception of forensic science and the reverse may also be the case.

Marital status

Marital status could influence employee perception and behavior owing to the role expectations and role performance connected to being a member of a family. For example, Roberts and Levenson (2001) found that job stress is more harmful to marital interaction than is physical exhaustion. Job stress among husbands produces a physiological and affective climate in which both spouses show many of the signs related to marital distress, leading to an increased likelihood of marriage dissolution (Roberts and Levenson, 2001). Depending on the value placed on their marriage and the effect of a particular workplace routine on the marriage, employees may hold a favorable or non-favorable view of organizational practice. Thus, police perception of forensic science may depend on how officers perceive ease of use of the forensic method and the effect of such on his or her family role or its future.

According to Rathi and Barath (2013), when employees perceive that the demands of their work prevent them from fulfilling their family roles, this may negatively influence their attitude toward the job, which can further result in reduced job satisfaction. Married officers seem to experience severe strain-related conflict between their work and family; however, single officers had less and weaker emotional support compared with their married counterparts (Qureshi et al., 2016).

Educational qualifications

There have been several studies on the relationship between education and police behavior. For example, Ojedokun (2008) reported that police officers with higher educational qualifications had negative attitudes towards unethical work behavior (Lee and Punch, 2004). Extrapolating from this, education may influence attitudes or perceptions of forensic science, which is a tool that helps in ensuring ethical conduct in police investigations. Also, Fekjær (2014) found that police personnel with higher education levels tended to be too theoretical; this suggests the possible influence of education in the police perception of forensic science. Indeed, Machado and Silva (2015), found that disagreement with the benefits of the national forensic DNA database increased in line with the level of education, indicating a negative relationship between education and perception of forensic usefulness. The question of whether higher education influences police perception and behavior, quality or effectiveness remains open (Fekjær, 2014; Wimshurst and Ransley, 2007) because many divergent findings have been reported by previous studies. This current study contributes to answering the question.

Rank structure

To a large extent, police tasks and responsibilities depend on an officer’s rank. However, the wide application of forensic science in policing requires at least basic forensic knowledge to secure crime scenes and collect evidence, even by police personnel in the lowest rank. Although studies have reported the rank structure among police investigators (Boateng, 2014; Chinwokwu and Igbo, 2017; Ladapo, 2011), studies focusing on the relationship between rank and perceptions of forensic science are not readily available. Supposedly, all police investigators, irrespective of rank, have some perception of forensic science and perhaps have used some of its methods during the discharge of their duties.

Other studies on police perceptions of different aspects of their job have reported differences between ranks. For example, Luceño-Moreno et al. (2016) found significant differences in the perception of insufficient rewards and insufficient organizational support between constables and other categories, and between constables and corporals, respectively. In another study, senor-ranking law enforcement officers, irrespective of rank, overwhelmingly agreed on the benefits and indicated their acceptance of evidence-based policing (Campas, 2020). However, findings show that there was a gap in understanding evidence-based learning between the various ranks in the Norwegian police; control room supervisors were more receptive than the higher-ranked leaders (Hoel and Barland, 2020). The nature of police perceptions of forensic science may also differ by rank.

Years spent in service

According to Mateescu et al. (2015), younger officers may be more likely to accept modern technology, for example a body-worn camera (and perhaps other investigative equipment), than senior officers who might see technology as a hindrance to the traditional way of performing police duties. This argument was supported by Obasi (2018). It can be implied that the perception and acceptance of forensic science techniques could be better among younger officers than among older ones.

By contrast, experienced officers were seen as better at dealing with citizens and were involved in the training of less-experienced officers in the use of minimal and acceptable force in encounters with the public (Bayley and Garofalo, 1989; Riksheim and Chermak, 1993). This was confirmed by Aamodt (2004), as well as Paoline and Terrill (2007). Officers with less experience draw their weapons too quickly and make poor judgments on whether to shoot compared with more experienced officers (Stone and Ward, 2000). Building on the above arguments, more-experienced officers may have a better perception of forensic science because its methods and techniques allow for a better and more fair way of dealing with suspects during investigations, and without the use of unnecessary force.

The gamut of training

Police training, which is usually done at the point of entry into the profession as well as throughout police service, has been of interest to many scholars. With the dynamism of crime and crime-fighting techniques, for example cybercrime and digital forensic (McCoy, 2006), training is inevitable in ensuring effective police services.

It has been reported that training within the police academy influences recruits’ positive attitudes towards community policing (Haarr, 2001). Stone and Ward (2000) reported that training in investigative techniques helps reduce the unnecessary use of force to obtain information from suspects. In a 4-year longitudinal study, Krott et al. (2018) found that xenophobic attitudes among Germans students at a police academy continuously decreased within the first three years of professional training, with the training being the major factor. Consequently, officers with proper and more training in investigation techniques may have a positive perception of forensic techniques.

Nevertheless, there have been complaints by recruits that training did not prepare them for what they came across while on duty, because they are often told to forget what they learned during training and follow the dictate of experienced officers (Stone and Ward, 2000). With discouragement from supervisors, therefore, training may not necessarily stimulate a favorable perception of forensic science or any organizational resources made available to officers to help them perform their duties. Furthermore, some researchers (Blumberg et al., 2016; Henson et al., 2010) have also questioned whether training for recruits will affect their integrity and could predict their future performance as sworn police officers. Although issues of police integrity and performance are crucial, they could also depend on how well the officers perceive their working environment and resources, which could depend on the level of training the officers have.

Method

This study was a cross-sectional sample survey. The location of the study was Zone 1 of the Nigeria Police, which is one of the 12 zones that make up the Nigeria Police organizational structure, and has three state commands under it. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee (JEPeM) of the Universiti Sains Malaysia and the Nigeria Police authority. JEPeM adopts research ethics guidelines outlined by the Helsinki Declaration, and the committee is listed under the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) of the United States Department of Health and Human Services.

Based on the total IPO population of 3771 a sample size of 347 was determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) formula. A potential dropout of 20% was added, giving a sample size of 416. Systematic sampling was used to select the elements included in the study. For the sample selection, inclusion criteria were set as: (a) an IPO must have spent at least one year in service; (b) should have been in the location of the study on a regular posting and not on special assignment, loan, or operation; and (c) also be serving at the State or Zonal Criminal Investigations and Intelligence Department in Zone 1 at the time of conducting the study as an IPO.

Data were collected via self-administered instruments that contained questions on six the sociodemographic markers of the respondents (gender, age, marital status, highest educational qualification, rank, and years in service) and the perception scale. Information on the frequency of forensic science training attended by the respondents was used as a control. The perception scale was purposely developed for this study because none specifically designed and used to measure police perception regarding forensic science was available in the literature. The instrument was initially a seven-point Likert scale with 18 items, but after undergoing validation and revalidation, four items were found to be valid and reliable for the construct with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.77. Each item represents one feature of forensic science, namely, reliability, intelligibility, compatibility, and validity. At the end of the data collection, usable data were obtained from 401 respondents. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 24. Frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation (SD) were generated to describe the data; an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine differences among the variables.

Results and discussion

Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents

As shown in Table 1, the majority (87.3%) of respondents were male (12.7% were female). This is not surprising as the workforce of the Nigeria Police is dominated by men because women rarely join the police (Sarki and Danjuma, 2019). According to the Nigeria Police, there were 87.6% and 12.4% male and female police officers in the agency respectively (NPF/UNWOMEN/UNFPA, 2010). Respondents aged between 28 and 37 years constituted the highest percentage (37.2%) compared with other age categories; the next most frequent age category was 38–47 years with 34.4% of the respondents. The mean (SD) age was 39 (6.9) years.

The majority (78.1%) of respondents were married. More than one-third (35.4%) of respondents were held a diploma, 28.7% had a bachelor’s degree, and 25.2% had secondary certificates. These findings were expected because a primary certificate is no longer accepted as the minimum education to join the force.

Concerning rank, each category was represented as follows: 32.9% officers, 31.2% inspectors, and 35.9% constables. The percentage of constables was a little higher, but this shows that the human resource composition of Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Departments was almost equally distributed.

In terms of years in service, the highest number of respondents were in the 16–20 years category. This is an active service period between the beginning of a career and the time of retirement from the Nigeria Police. Respondents with 1–5, 6–10 or 11–15 years of service collectively accounted for more than half (approximately 18% for each category). The mean number years in service was 14.5. Based on these findings, the Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Departments constituted IPOs who have more years to spend in service.

Table 1.

Sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents (n = 401).

Variable		n (%)
Gender	Male	350 (87.3)
	Female	51 (12.7)
Age	18–27 years	39 (9.7)
	28–37 years	149 (37.2)
	38–47 years	138 (34.4)
	≥ 48 years	75 (18.7)
Marital status	Single	78 (19.5)
	Married	313 (78.1)
	Never married	10 (2.5)
Highest educational qualification	Primary certificate	16 (4.0)
	Secondary certificate	101 (25.2)
	Diploma certificate	141 (35.2)
	Degree/HND certificate	115 (28.7)
	Postgraduate	28 (7.0)
Rank	Officers	132 (32.9)
	Inspectors	125 (31.2)
	Men	144 (35.9)
Years in service	1–5	73 (18.2)
	6–10	72 (18.0)
	11–15	73 (18.2)
	16–20	94 (23.4)
	21–25	30 (7.5)
	26–30	54 (13.5)
	> 30	5 (1.2)
Forensic science training attended	None	257 (64.1)
	Once	96 (23.9)
	More than once	48 (12.0)

Respondents’ perception of forensic science

The mean score for respondents’ perception was 14.56 (SD = 3.42). Most respondents (71.1%) had a good perception of forensic science. In particular, at least two-thirds had favorable perceptions of the reliability (66.6%) and validity (67.8%) of forensic science, with more than half of respondents having a good perception of forensic science intelligibility (51.1%) and compatibility (55.6%). This suggests that a good perception of forensic science was common among many of the respondents (Table 2).

Table 2.

Perception of forensic science (n = 401).

Item	Scores			Overall perception (%)
Item	Max	M	SD	Good	Not so good
Reliability	5	3.79	1.29	66.6	32.7
Intelligibility	5	3.38	1.27	51.1	48.1
Compatibility	5	3.55	1.18	55.6	42.9
Validity	5	3.81	1.22	67.8	30.9
Perception	20	14.56	3.42	60.3	39.7

The findings provide additional evidence in support of the utilization of forensic science in police work. This type of perception among the IPOs is likely to influence them in embracing forensic techniques, particularly in criminal investigations. A positive perception of forensic science among Canadian police was reported by Mousseau et al. (2019), and this could have been responsible for the better application of forensic techniques within the police organization. Lieberman et al. (2008) and Hans et al. (2011) found that undergraduate students, jurors and community members have a positive perceptions of the reliability of some forensic evidence. LeFevre (2012) provided some evidence that police field officers in the USA recognized the potential benefit of field computing, although it was previously found that police perceptions were usually not in favor of evidence-based computer-generated hot-spot maps (Ratcliffe and McCullagh, 2001). A hypothesis test was used to determine whether there were differences in the perception among the sociodemographic markers of the IPOs.

The hypotheses test: Differences in perception among sociodemographic markers

An ANCOVA was run to determine differences in perception among gender, age, marital status, highest educational qualification, rank, and years of service while controlling for forensic science training attended by the respondents. Before conducting the ANCOVA, the assumption of normality was checked. Variables were normally distributed, as assessed by skewness and a kurtosis range of ±3.29 (Mayers, 2013). Interactions between the covariate and the independent variables were non-significant, indicating that the assumption of homogeneity of the regression slopes was not violated. There were also linear relationships between the dependent and independent variables as assessed by visual inspection of the scatterplot.

After adjustment of means, the results of the ANCOVA showed that there were statistical perceptual differences in highest educational qualification, F(4,247) = 3.532, p = .008, partial η² = 0.054, and rank, F(2,247) = 1.120, p = .042, partial η² = 0.025. Other variables (gender, age, marital status and years in service) showed no statistical difference in perception when forensic science training attended was controlled (Table 3). Accordingly, null hypotheses H₀4 and H₀5 are rejected, whereas H₀1, H₀2, H₀3, and HG₀6 are not.

Table 3.

Tests of between-subjects effects; variable: perception of forensic science.

Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.	Partial η²
Corrected model	1905.835^a	144	13.235	1.229	.079	0.417
Intercept	4344.344	1	4344.344	403.298	.000	0.620
FS training attended	5.792	1	5.792	0.538	.464	0.002
Gender	10.683	1	10.683	0.992	.320	0.004
Age	7.631	3	2.544	0.236	.871	0.003
Marital status	32.110	2	16.055	1.490	.227	0.012
Highest educational qualification	152.201	4	38.050	3.532	.008	0.054
Rank	69.313	2	34.657	3.217	.042	0.025
Years spent in service	72.393	6	12.065	1.120	.351	0.026
Error	2660.696	247	10.772
Total	87682.000	392
Corrected Total	4566.531	391

a. R ² = 0.417 (adjusted R ² = 0.078).

Figures written in bold indicate the statistically significant results.

To determine the results of pairwise comparison on the highest educational qualification and rank, post-hoc analyses with a Bonferroni adjustment were performed. The results of the post-hoc analysis on highest educational qualification are presented in Table 2. Data in the table are adjusted mean ± standard error (SE), unless stated otherwise.

According to the results, perception score is statistically significantly higher in the primary school category than in secondary school category (mean difference of 2.260, 95% CI 0.245 to 4.274, p = .028), and diploma certificate category (mean difference of 2.753, 95% CI 0.741 to 4.765, p = .008). Comparison between the secondary certificate and degree/HND certificate categories indicated a statistically significant lower perception score in the secondary certificate category (mean difference of −1.178, 95% CI −2.298 to −0.058, p = .039). Perception score is statistically significantly lower in the diploma category compared with the degree/HND certificate category (mean difference of −1.671, 95% CI −2.744 to −0.598, p = .002) and postgraduate category (mean difference of −1.977 95% CI −3.625 to −0.328, p = .019.

Table 4.

Pairwise comparisons: highest educational qualification.

Dependent variable: Perception of forensic science
(I) Highest educational qualification	(J) Highest educational qualification	Mean difference (I−J)	SE	Sig.^a	95% CI for difference^a
(I) Highest educational qualification	(J) Highest educational qualification	Mean difference (I−J)	SE	Sig.^a	Lower bound	Upper bound
Primary certificate	Secondary certificate	2.260^b,c*	1.023	.028	0.245	4.274
	Diploma certificate	2.753 ^b,c*	1.021	.008	0.741	4.765
	Degree/HND certificate	1.082^b,c	1.031	.295	−0.949	3.113
	Postgraduate	0.776^b,c	1.227	.527	−1.640	3.193
Secondary certificate	Primary certificate	−2.260 ^b,c*	1.023	.028	−4.274	−0.245
	Diploma certificate	0.493^b,c	0.553	.373	−0.595	1.582
	Degree/HND certificate	−1.178 ^b,c*	0.569	.039	−2.298	−0.058
	Postgraduate	−1.483^b,c	0.867	.088	−3.191	0.225
Diploma certificate	Primary certificate	−2.753 ^b,c*	1.021	.008	−4.765	−0.741
	Secondary certificate	−0.493^b,c	0.553	.373	−1.582	0.595
	Degree/HND certificate	−1.671 ^b,c*	0.545	.002	−2.744	−0.598
	Postgraduate	−1.977 ^b,c*	0.837	.019	−3.625	−0.328
Degree/HND certificate	Primary certificate	−1.082^b,c	1.031	.295	−3.113	0.949
	Secondary certificate	1.178 ^b,c*	0.569	.039	0.058	2.298
	Diploma certificate	1.671 ^b,c*	0.545	.002	0.598	2.744
	Postgraduate	−0.305^b,c	0.841	.717	−1.962	1.351
Postgraduate	Primary certificate	−0.776^b,c	1.227	.527	−3.193	1.640
	Secondary certificate	1.483^b,c	0.867	.088	−0.225	3.191
	Diploma certificate	1.977 ^b,c*	0.837	.019	0.328	3.625
	Degree/HND certificate	0.305^b,c	0.841	.717	−1.351	1.962

Based on estimated marginal means.

^a Adjustment for multiple comparisons: least significant difference (equivalent to no adjustments).

^b Estimate of the modified population marginal mean (I).

^c Estimate of the modified population marginal mean (J).

* Mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

With regards to rank, the results of the pairwise comparison showed that the officers category has a statistically significantly higher perception score compared with constables with a mean difference of 1.044 (95% CI 0.043 to 2.045, p = .041). Also, there was a statistically significant higher perception among inspectors than constables with a mean difference of 1.330 (95% CI 0.309 to 2.350, p = .011). There was no statistical difference for the other pairs (Table 5).

Table 5.

Pairwise comparisons: rank.

Dependent variable: Perception of forensic science
(I) Rank	(J) Rank	Mean difference (I−J)	SE	Sig.^a	95% CI for difference^a
(I) Rank	(J) Rank	Mean difference (I−J)	SE	Sig.^a	Lower bound	Upper bound
Officers	Inspectors	−0.286^b,c	0.529	.590	−1.328	0.757
Officers	Men	1.044^b,c*	0.508	.041	0.043	2.045
Inspectors	Officers	0.286^b,c	0.529	.590	−0.757	1.328
Inspectors	Men	1.330^b,c*	0.518	.011	0.309	2.350
Men	Officers	−1.044^b,c*	0.508	.041	−2.045	−0.043
Men	Inspectors	−1.330^b,c*	0.518	.011	−2.350	−0.309

Based on estimated marginal means.

^a Adjustment for multiple comparisons: least significant difference (equivalent to no adjustments).

^b Estimate of the modified population marginal mean (I).

^c Estimate of the modified population marginal mean (J).

* Mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

This study has shown both expected and unexpected findings regarding the effect of IPO educational level. First, the study supports arguments that police officers who have graduate or postgraduate education, because of their less authoritarian views (Carlan and Byxbe, 2000), could have a more positive perception of forensic science than those with a diploma or secondary certificate. According to Brown and Brudney (2003), more than half of police respondents who tended to have higher education perceived digital technology as supporting their problem-solving activities. Consequently, officers with higher education levels are likely to have a positive perception of forensic science. Related to this, Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC) reported that police investigators perceived and gave little value to some types of evidence during an investigation as a result of poor training and limited knowledge of forensic science (Blakey and HMIC, 2000). This finding was echoed by Ludwig et al. (2012).

Moreover, Dubinsky et al. (2005), Ojedokun (2008) and Swaidan et al. (2006) reported that police officers with higher educational qualifications had negative attitudes towards unethical work behavior; such a condition may lead to police professionalism (Lee and Punch, 2004), which could include having positive perceptions of more objective methods of police work like forensic investigations. Similarly, Carlan and Byxbe (2000) found that college-educated police officers hold views that are less authoritarian than their colleagues who are not college educated; forensic science is less authoritarian. Carlan and Byxbe’s (2000) finding is in line with the current study and thus provides justification for the degree holders in this study to have had a better perception of forensic science. This is echoed by the fact that even in the Nigeria Police, all officers in charge of forensic units had at least obtained a first degree. Indeed, some of these IPOs might have degrees in sciences, which is another opportunity for them to have had more awareness of forensic science and its benefits in a criminal investigation, hence the better perception.

However, Machado and Silva (2015), found that disagreement with the benefits of a national forensic DNA database increased in line with level of education and seemed to be more common among the oldest participants. This indicates a negative relationship between education and age, on the one hand, and perception of forensic usefulness on the other hand. Notwithstanding, this study unexpectedly discovered that primary-school certificate holders have a more positive perception of forensic science than those with secondary education or diploma certificate. This suggests that other factors might have influenced the perception of forensic science among respondents. One explanation could be that the IPOs’ perceptions were based on experience because IPOs with a primary school certificate were likely older but experienced officers. Perhaps, through numerous meetings, briefings and investigation encounters over the years they have learnt about the relevance of forensic science in police work.

Ludwig and Fraser (2014) recognized the relevance of education in the effective use of forensic science. They emphasized the findings of Horvath and Meesig (1996) in the USA, and Ramsay (1987) and Ross (1987) in the UK regarding forensic knowledge and awareness and how they could affect not only the perception but also the actual utilization of forensic science evidence. It is known that one of the important ways of obtaining forensic knowledge and awareness is through education. This was emphasized by Mousseau et al. (2019) in their study on police perception, awareness and knowledge of forensic science in Quebec, Canada. In a related study, it was found that public views of forensic DNA testing were influenced by level of education, among other factors such as age and exposure to law enforcement occupations (Machado and Silva, 2019).

In terms of rank, higher-ranking IPOs had a more positive perception of forensic science than those of lower rank; this result could have been expected. A possible reason for this is that higher rank is usually associated with experience and education (Hoel and Barland, 2020); thus, during their long years of service officers could have learned the complexity of crimes and how the application of forensic science methods could assist in solving them fairly, hence the positive perception of forensic techniques. As highlighted earlier, education is a way by which awareness and better perception of forensic science can be developed. This can be through formal learning in the classroom and library or through interactions with friends during extracurricular activities, opportunities for which could be greater with higher rank.

There is a dearth of studies that specifically explore the association between the perception of forensic science and rank. However, one relevant finding that supports the current finding, is that officers of higher rank were less likely to resort to the use of force during their encounters with the public (Aamodt, 2004; McElvain and Kposowa, 2008; Paoline and Terrill, 2007). Consequently, higher-ranking officers may prepare a less forceful approach to dealing with suspects, such as forensic methods; hence the favorable perception toward forensic science. Again, because the majority of police investigators are junior-ranking officers (Boateng, 2014; Ladapo, 2011), the application of forensic science could allow supervising senior ranks, who are less involved in the actual investigation, to obtain reliable reports from the process because cases would have been objectively investigated using forensic methods. Consequently, the higher ranks developed a more positive perception of forensic science.

Nevertheless, Ericson and Haggerty (1997) and Willis et al. (2018) opined that the introduction of information technology (IT), which is part and parcel of digital forensics, could restrict the autonomy of, for example, street-level police officers. Indeed, IT can alter the balance of power between superior officers and their juniors due to the possibility of internal surveillance system and the like. As a result, police personnel may dislike and even sabotage efforts at various levels of work (Ericson and Haggerty, 1997). In other words, there could be differences in attitudes or perceptions towards these technologies and related sciences among officers, with junior officers being more skeptical of technology. Yet, Chan (2001) and Hendrix et al. (2018) found that police officers, without differentiation in ranks, have begun to appreciate the advantage of using technology-driven information that assists in crime prevention and control. This is contrary to what this current study has evidenced: that there were differences in terms of the perception of forensic science between the officer, inspector, and constable categories of IPOs.

In general, the findings of this study suggest that factors other than sociodemographic markers could have affected the respondents’ views of forensic science. These factors could be films and TV dramas such as the CSI series (Huey, 2010; Machado, 2012; Sarapin, 2009; Sarapin and Sparks, 2015). The personality type of the respondents may also affect their perception of forensic science (Parks-Leduc et al., 2015). Similarly, organizational culture could have a role in determining what type of perception of forensic science the officers have, as the former was found to have affected workers’ commitment (Anitha and Begum, 2016). These factors merit further research.

Conclusion and recommendations

Perception plays an essential role in influencing an individual’s behavior, whereas sociodemographic characteristics could affect the way people perceive things. The nature of police personnel’s perceptions towards the utilization of forensic science tools and facilities needed to carry out their duties of crime prevention and control is, therefore, worth exploring. This study examined the issue of police perception and the application of forensic science in criminal investigations. It concluded that many of the respondents had a positive perception of forensic science. Specifically, approximately two-thirds of the officers had a positive perception of forensic science reliability and validity, whereas just over half perceived forensic intelligibility and compatibility positively. There were perceptual differences among the categories of educational level and rank. Officers with a higher education level have a favorable perception of forensic science, in comparison with primary school leavers, on the one hand, and secondary and diploma holders, on the other hand. Also, IPOs with higher ranks have more positive perception than those in the lowest cadre. It is recommended that rank and educational qualification should be considered when deploying police personnel in criminal investigation departments. However, because an investigation may not be effectively conducted by the senior and most educated officers, because of their limited number compared with the possible numbers of cases, mentoring younger and less-educated officers should be embraced to improve the shortage of personnel needed in the investigation department. Thus, the officer composition of the department should include different ranks and educational qualifications. It should be noted that other factors, like personality type and motivation, could also influence perceptions of forensic science. Indeed, these are some of the factors that future studies could explore. Importantly, again, future research could investigate whether training affects officers’ perceptions of forensic science because the variable was controlled in this study.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author(s) received financial support for the research from the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TetFund), Abuja, Nigeria.

ORCID iD

Zakariyya M. Sarki

References

Aamodt

(2004) Research in Law Enforcement Selection. Irvine, CA: Brown Walker Press.

Afolabi

Omole

(2011) Personality type and workforce diversity as predictors of ethical behaviour and job satisfaction among Nigerian policemen. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences 3(5): 381–388.

Alfes

Shantz

Truss

Soane

(2013) The link between perceived human resource management practices, engagement and employee behaviour: a moderated mediation model. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 24(2): 330–351.

Andreescu

Keeling

Vito

Voinic

(2012) Romanian and American police officers’ perceptions of professional integrity and ethical behavior. Revista Romana de Sociologie XXIII: 185–207.

Anitha

Begum

(2016) Role of organisational culture and employee commitment in employee retention. ASBM Journal of Management 9(1): 17.

Ballantyne

Wilson-Wilde

(2020) Assessing the reliability and validity of forensic science–an industry perspective. Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(3): 275–281.

Bayley

Garofalo

(1989) The management of violence by police patrol officers. Criminology 27(1): 1–26.

Bitzer

Albertini

Lock

Ribaux

Delémont

(2015) Utility of the clue—From assessing the investigative contribution of forensic science to supporting the decision to use traces. Science & Justice 55(6): 509–513.

Blakey

and Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (2000) Under the Microscope, Thematic Inspection Report on Scientific and Technical Support. London: HMIC, 2000.

10.

Blumberg

Giromini

Jacobson

(2016) Impact of police academy training on recruits’ integrity. Police Quarterly 19(1): 63–86.

11.

Boateng

(2014) Perceived organizational support and police officer effectiveness: testing the organizational support theory in Ghana. International Criminal Justice Review 24(2): 134–150.

12.

Brown

Brudney

(2003) Learning organizations in the public sector? A study of police agencies employing information and technology to advance knowledge. Public Administration Review 63(1): 30–43.

13.

Campas

JrS

(2020) Senior ranking police officers, perception of evidence-based policing and police fatalities. PhD thesis, University of Phoenix, USA.

14.

Cardinetti

Cammarota

(2005) Negative conclusion cases: a proposal for likelihood ratio evaluation. Law, Probability and Risk 4(1–2): 79–88.

15.

Carlan

Byxbe

(2000) The promise of humanistic policing: is higher education living up to societal expectation? American Journal of Criminal Justice 24(2): 235–246.

16.

Chan

(2001) The technological game: how information technology is transforming police practice. Criminal Justice 1(2): 139–159.

17.

Chinwokwu

Igbo

EUM

(2017) The police and criminal investigation in southeastern Nigeria. Online Journal of Arts, Management & Social Sciences 2(1).

18.

Davis

(1989) Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly 13(3): 319–340.

19.

Den Hartog

Boselie

Paauwe

(2004) Performance management: a model and research agenda. Applied Psychology 53: 556–569.

20.

Domingo

Garganté

(2016) Exploring the use of educational technology in primary education: teachers’ perception of mobile technology learning impacts and applications’ use in the classroom. Computers in Human Behavior 56: 21–28.

21.

Dubinsky

Nataraajan

Huang

(2005) Consumers’ moral philosophies: identifying the idealist and the relativist. Journal of Business Research 58(12): 1690–1701.

22.

Ericson

Haggerty

(1997) Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

23.

Fekjær

(2014) Police students’ social background, attitudes and career plans. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 37(3): 467–483.

24.

Garner

Maxwell

(2002) Understanding the Use of Force By and Against the Police in Six Jurisdictions, Final Report. Washington, DC: Office of Justice Programs.

25.

Garrett

Mitchell

(2016) Forensics and fallibility: comparing the views of lawyers and jurors. West Virginia Law Review 119: 621.

26.

Goetschel

Peha

(2017) Police perceptions of body-worn cameras. American Journal of Criminal Justice 42(4): 698–726.

27.

Haarr

(2001) The making of a community policing officer: the impact of basic training and occupational socialization on police recruits. Police Quarterly 4(4): 402–433.

28.

Hans

Kaye

Dann

Farley

Albertson

(2011) Science in the jury box: jurors’ comprehension of mitochondrial DNA evidence. Law and Human Behavior 35(1): 60–71.

29.

Hendrix

Taniguchi

Strom

Barrick

Johnson

(2018) The eyes of law enforcement in the new panopticon: police–community racial asymmetry and the use of surveillance technology. Surveillance & Society 16(1): 53–68.

30.

Henson

Reyns

Klahm

IV CF

Frank

(2010) Do good recruits make good cops? Problems predicting and measuring academy and street-level success. Police Quarterly, 13(1): 5–26.

31.

Hoel

Barland

(2020) A lesson to learn? A study of how various ranks and police leaders understand and relate to experience-based learning. Policing and Society 31(4):1–16.

32.

Horvath

Meesig

(1996) The criminal investigation process and the role of forensic evidence: a review of empirical findings. Journal of Forensic Science 41(6): 963–969.

33.

Huey

(2010) “I’ve seen this on CSI”: criminal investigators’ perceptions about the management of public expectations in the field. Crime, Media, Culture 6(1): 49–68.

34.

Kakar

(2002) Gender and police officers’ perceptions of their job performance: an analysis of the relationship between gender and perceptions of job performance. Criminal Justice Policy Review 13(3): 238–256.

35.

Kaminski

(2011) Diffusion of innovation theory. Canadian Journal of Nursing Informatics 6(2).

36.

Krejcie

Morgan

(1970) Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement 30(3): 607–610.

37.

Krott

Zeitner

(2018) Xenophobic attitudes in German police officers: a longitudinal investigation from professional education to practice. International Journal of Police Science & Management 20(3): 174–184.

38.

Ladapo

(2011) Effective investigations, a pivot to efficient criminal justice administration: challenges in Nigeria. African Journal of Criminology & Justice Studies 5: 79.

39.

Lee

Punch

(2004) Policing by degrees: police officers’ experience of university education. Policing and Society 14(3): 233–249.

40.

LeFevre

(2012) Views of Wisconsin Police supervisors on forensic investigations education for police officer job applicants. PhD thesis, Capella University, USA.

41.

Leung

(2006) The International Forensic Summit: vision and mission. Forensic Science International 162(1–3): 2–6.

42.

Lieberman

Carrell

Miethe

Krauss

(2008) Gold versus platinum: do jurors recognize the superiority and limitations of DNA evidence compared to other types of forensic evidence? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 14(1): 27.

43.

Longest

Smith

(2011) Conflicting or compatible: beliefs about religion and science among emerging adults in the United States 1. Sociological Forum 26(4): 846–869.

44.

Luceño-Moreno

García-Albuerne

Talavera-Velasco

Martín-García

(2016) Stress in Spanish police force depending on occupational rank, sex, age and work-shift. Psicothema 28(4): 389–393.

45.

Ludwig

Fraser

(2014) Effective use of forensic science in volume crime investigations: identifying recurring themes in the literature. Science & Justice 54(1): 81–88.

46.

Ludwig

Fraser

Williams

(2012) Crime scene examiners and volume crime investigations: an empirical study of perception and practice. Forensic Science Policy & Management: An International Journal 3(2): 53–61.

47.

Machado

(2012) Prisoners’ views of CSI’s portrayal of forensic identification technologies: a grounded assessment. New Genetics and Society 31(3): 271–284.

48.

Machado

Silva

(2019) What influences public views on forensic DNA testing in the criminal field? A scoping review of quantitative evidence. Human Genomics 13(1): 23.

49.

Mansour

(2011) Science teachers’ views of science and religion vs. the Islamic perspective: conflicting or compatible? Science Education 95(2): 281–309.

50.

Martin

Daffern

(2006) Clinician perceptions of personal safety and confidence to manage inpatient aggression in a forensic psychiatric setting. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 13(1): 90–99.

51.

Mateescu

Rosenblat

Boyd

(2015) Police body-worn cameras. Data & Society Research Institute 34(7): 1–40.

52.

Mayers

(2013) Introduction to Statistics and SPSS in Psychology. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

53.

McCoy

(2006) Teaching style and the application of adult learning principles by police instructors. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 29(1): 77–91.

54.

McElvain

Kposowa

(2008) Police officer characteristics and the likelihood of using deadly force. Criminal Justice and Behavior 35(4): 505–521.

55.

Michener

DeLamater

Myers

(2004) Self-presentation and impression management. Social Psychology 5: 222–244.

56.

Morrison

(2011) Measuring the validity and reliability of forensic likelihood-ratio systems. Science & Justice 51(3): 91–98.

57.

Mousseau

Baechler

Crispino

(2019) Management of crime scene units by Quebec police senior managers: insight on forensic knowledge and understanding of key stakeholders. Science & Justice 59(5): 524–532.

58.

Murrie

Gardner

Kelley

Dror

(2019) Perceptions and estimates of error rates in forensic science: a survey of forensic analysts. Forensic Science International 302: 109887.

59.

National Bureau of Statistics (2017) Crime Statistics: Reported Offences by Type and State (2016). Available at: https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary?page=2&offset=10 (accessed 21 February 2018).

60.

National Population Commission (2018) Nigeria’s current estimated population. Available at: http://www.population.gov.ng (accessed 21 February 2019).

61.

National Research Council (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

62.

Nigeria Police Force (2018) History of the Nigeria Police 2Force. Available at: https://www.npf.gov.ng/aboutus/History_Nigeria_Police.php (accessed 23 August 2018).

63.

Nishii

Lepak

Schneider

(2008) Employee attributions of the “why” of HR practices: their effects on employee attitudes and behaviors, and customer satisfaction. Personnel Psychology 61: 503–545.

64.

NPF/UNWOMEN/UNFPA (2010) A Gender Policy for the Nigeria Police Force. Abuja, Nigeria: Nigeria Police Force, United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, and the United Nations Population Fund.

65.

Obasi

(2018) Police officers’ perceptions of body-worn camera technology. Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies 4544. Available at: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/4544 (accessed 11 March 2019.

66.

Odedokun

(2015) Differential influence of demographic factors on job burnout among police officers in Ibadan, Oyo state. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 6(3 Suppl. 1): 520.

67.

Ojedokun

(2008) Attitude towards unethical work behaviour among police personnel: the role of emotions. Ibadan Journal of the Social Sciences 6(3): 13–21.

68.

Paauwe

(2009) HRM and performance: achievements, methodological issues and prospects. Journal of Management Studies 46: 129–142.

69.

Paoline

III EA

Terrill

(2007) Police education, experience, and the use of force. Criminal Justice and Behavior 34(2): 179–196.

70.

Parks-Leduc

Feldman

Bardi

(2015) Personality traits and personal values: a meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review 19(1): 3–29.

71.

Perugini

Prestwich

(2007) The gatekeeper: individual differences are key in the chain from perception to behaviour. European Journal of Personality 21(3): 303–317.

72.

Prahlow

(2010) Introduction to forensic pathology. In: Prahlow

(ed.) Forensic Pathology for Police, Death Investigators, Attorneys, and Forensic Scientists. New York: Springer, 35–47.

73.

Qureshi

Kistruck

Bhatt

(2016) The enabling and constraining effects of social ties in the process of institutional entrepreneurship. Organization Studies 37(3): 425–447.

74.

Rabe-Hemp

(2009) POLICEwomen or policeWOMEN? Doing gender and police work. Feminist Criminology 4(2): 114–129.

75.

Rabe-Hemp

Schuck

(2007) Violence against police officers: are female officers at greater risk? Police Quarterly 10(4): 411–428.

76.

Ramsay

(1987) The Effectiveness of the Forensic Science Service (No. 92). London: HMSO.

77.

Rao

VSP

Narayana

(1998) Organisation Theory and Behaviour. Delhi: Konark.

78.

Ratcliffe

McCullagh

(2001) Chasing ghosts? Police perception of high crime areas. British Journal of Criminology 41(2): 330–341.

79.

Rathi

Barath

(2013) Work–family conflict and job and family satisfaction: moderating effect of social support among police personnel. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 32(4): 438–454.

80.

Ribeiro

Tangen

McKimmie

(2019) Beliefs about error rates and human judgment in forensic science. Forensic Science International 297: 138–147.

81.

Riksheim

Chermak

(1993) Causes of police behavior revisited. Journal of Criminal Justice 21(4): 353–382.

82.

Roberts

Levenson

(2001) The remains of the workday: impact of job stress and exhaustion on marital interaction in police couples. Journal of Marriage and Family 63(4): 1052–1067.

83.

Rogers

(2003) Diffusion of Innovations, 5th edn. New York: Free Press.

84.

Ross

(1987) Review of Scientific Support for the Police. London: Home Office, 151–156.

85.

Sarapin

(2009) Investigating the CSI effect: is the viewing of forensic-science television programming related to attitudes that could affect jury behavior? Master’s thesis, Purdue University, USA.

86.

Sarapin

Sparks

(2015) Sci, Psi, and CSI: police officers and students’ paranormal TV consumption, real-life experience with paranormal phenomena, and perceptions of psychic detectives. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 30(3): 191–203.

87.

Sarki

Hussein

(2019) Factors influencing the choice of police as prospective career among students of criminology and security studies in Nigeria. Journal of Administrative Science 16(1): 51–60.

88.

Stern

Cuellar

Kaye

(2019) Reliability and validity of forensic science evidence. Significance 16(2): 21–24.

89.

Stone

Ward

(2000) Democratic policing: a framework for action. Policing and Society: An International Journal 10(1): 11–45.

90.

Stratton

(2015) Dorsal hand feature analysis: an aid to forensic human identification. PhD thesis, University of Dundee, UK.

91.

Swaidan

Vittel

Rose

Gilbert

(2006) Consumer ethics: the role of acculturation in U.S Immigrants populations. Journal of Business Ethics 64(1): 1–16.

92.

Van Volkom

Stapley

Malter

(2013) Use and perception of technology: sex and generational differences in a community sample. Educational Gerontology 39(10): 729–740.

93.

White

Lester

Gentile

Rosenbleeth

(2011) The utilization of forensic science and criminal profiling for capturing serial killers. Forensic Science International 209(1–3): 160–165.

94.

Willis

Koper

Lum

(2018) The adaptation of license-plate readers for investigative purposes: police technology and innovation re-invention. Justice Quarterly 35(4): 614–638.

95.

Wimshurst

Ransley

(2007) Police education and the university sector: contrasting models from the australian experience. Journal of Criminal Justice Education 18(1): 106–122.

96.

Woodman

Julian

Spiranovic

Ballantyne

(2020) To trace or not to trace: a survey of how police use and perceive chemical trace evidence. Forensic Science International 309: 110178.

97.

Zadeh

Ramazani

(2012) Accountant’s perception of forensic accounting (case study of Iran). Global Journal of Management and Business Research 12(6).