Immigration and social capital in a Korean-American women’s online community: Supporting acculturation,cultural pluralism,and transnationalism

Abstract

This study of a Korean-American women’s online community, also known as the “MissyUSA” community, has incorporated the concept of social capital with an important topic within each of three major migration research areas—legal immigration status in assimilation, the retention of Korean culinary culture in cultural pluralism, and transnational plans in transnationalism. The central argument of this article is that this “MissyUSA” community creates social capital for its online members. One important form of social capital stressed here is social resources that correspond to its online members’ (information seekers) access to valuable information regarding the process of obtaining legal status as documented immigrants, Korean-style cuisines, and their transnational plans. Moreover, social support is also regarded in this study as another form of social capital. In this case, the “MissyUSA” community becomes a network of social supporters by which they (respondents) support its information seekers through the transmission of their knowledge and/or through their positive emotional reactions.

Keywords

Acculturation ethnic culinary culture ethnic online communities legal immigration status social capital transnational plans

Introduction

In this article, the scope of online communities is confined to a certain type of computer-mediated community where all their participating members share some common interests and backgrounds. More specifically, the main focus of concern here is immigrant ethnic online communities. Much of the research undertaken on immigrant ethnic online communities has placed greater emphasis on the representations and/or mobilization of their own voices; the creation or re-creation of a sense of community; or the formation, transformation, and reconstruction of identity across ethnicity, gender, location, or nation (Ignacio, 2005; Kim, 2011; Madianou, 2005; Mitra, 2001, 2005). However, the idea that these ethnic online communities have the potential to create two forms of social capital (social resources and social support) among their participating members has been less known in the research areas linking new media to immigration. This article addresses this point by analyzing the messages posted on the message board (“Life Q&A”) of a Korean-American online community called “MissyUSA.”

Members of “MissyUSA” have shared backgrounds, such as having been born in South Korea (hereafter Korea), their status as married women, their use of the Korean language, and their residence in the United States or Canada. It is a social network that has been primarily built on the interplay among gender, ethnicity, immigration status, and marital status. For some of its members, it is also an important source of information. In this regard, social capital corresponds to social resources (Coleman, 1994; Lin, 2001), namely, a wide range of information accessible among members of “MissyUSA” community. The range of information some of its members seek on immigration-related issues can be broadly classified into one of three main academic traditions of immigration research, that is, assimilation, cultural pluralism, and transnationalism (Alba and Nee, 2003; Gans, 1997; Glick Schiller et al., 1995; Waters and Jiménez, 2005). Indeed, many members of the “MissyUSA” community sought, or are now seeking, information through its “Life Q&A” message board to better adjust to their new environments, to maintain their ethnic cultural traditions, or to reconnect with their homeland. In this study, the function of the “MissyUSA” community as the source of a wide range of immigration-related information is examined by viewing immigrants’ assimilation through the lens of obtaining documentation of legal status, cultural pluralism through the lens of culinary culture retention, and transnationalism through the lens of transnational plans.

Moreover, this study attempts to show that some online communities like “MissyUSA” also become a network of social support (Rheingold, 2000; Wellman, 2001). The function of social support from the “MissyUSA” community surfaces when some of its members respond to the postings seeking information by disseminating knowledge and wisdom, sharing personal experiences with no expectation of reward, or alleviating the emotional stress of information seekers. Overall, the main objective of this study is to reveal that membership in the “MissyUSA” community makes it possible for its participating members to access one or both forms of social capital: social resources (information) and social support.

Ethnic online community as social capital: information

Much of sociological literature on social capital has focused upon its sources, character, forms, and its functions (Coleman, 1994; Lin, 2001; Portes and Sensenbrenner, 1993). In this study, one form of social capital is understood as the resources embedded in, or accessible through, social networks, called “social resources” (Lin, 1982, 2001). According to Lin (2001: 43), there are two distinctive types of social resources: material goods (e.g. houses, cars, and money) and symbolic goods (e.g. education, memberships in clubs, reputation). Expanding on Lin (2001), one of the social resources emphasized in this study is information itself. In other words, this information becomes a specific category of social resources that is inherent in social networks (Coleman, 1994).

The “MissyUSA” community analyzed in this study is a kind of closed network whose membership is open only to Korean-born, immigrant women. However, it is not a typical example of a closed network and is distinguished by its particular characteristics. First, its online membership is relatively large in size and members exchange messages with one another on condition of anonymity. Second, another unique feature of the “MissyUSA” community is that this network’s unidentified members become a group of prospective informants who can provide other members with a great deal of information, often of a high quality. Third, it is also an unconstrained network under which the acquisition of information is always possible through members’ connections to its website. Taken together, the “MissyUSA” community adheres to Castells’ model of “specialized communities” in which individuals build their networks with low barriers to entry and low opportunity costs on the basis of their specific interests (Castells, 2001).

Legal immigration status

In the realm of immigrant assimilation, a great deal of academic research has focused on immigrants’ cultural, economic, social, or spatial assimilation into their host society (Alba and Nee, 2003; Massey, 1985; Waters and Jiménez, 2005). Immigrants’ political incorporation into the host society has now begun to garner academic interest, especially their access to citizenship within the host society. The main issues surrounding citizenship in the host country include legal status, rights and participation in politics, and a sense of belonging (Bloemraad et al., 2008: 156). Of these elements, the acquisition of legal status through naturalization has often been portrayed as the most important component of political incorporation (Bloemraad, 2006).

The reasons for immigrants’ eagerness to obtain permanent legal status in the United States have been intensively discussed, including their rising awareness of their legal protection amid the growing insecurity of the post-9/11 environment, desire for employment advantages, access to public benefits and personal conveniences in an era of globalization (i.e. foreign trips), and the recent US government’s policies on immigrant assimilation (Van Hook et al., 2006). This study considers immigrants’ efforts to obtain permanent legal status in the dual forms of permanent residence and naturalization as the two main phases of their political incorporation into the host society. For temporary immigrants, legal permanent residence (green card) carries no sufficient guarantee of legal protection, access to public-sector employment, or social welfare benefits (Bloemraad, 2006; Brettell, 2006). Nonetheless, the acquisition of US legal permanent resident status can make them feel more secure by avoiding the need to renew their temporary visa, permissions for employment in an American company, or being eligible for government-sponsored financial aid for education and housing. Importantly, acquisition of legal permanent resident status is also the initial and vital stage before application for naturalization.

More specifically, this study also attempts to identify the issues, themes, or specific topics pertaining to both types of political incorporation—legal permanent residence and naturalization. Indeed, this study will reveal that the “MissyUSA” community is an important network for its members to be able to access a wide range of information about these two types of political incorporation into American society.

Ethnic cultural retention

Immigrants’ adoption of the cultural beliefs, standards, and language of a host society is often referred to as cultural assimilation or acculturation (Alba and Nee, 2003; Gordon, 1964). The main thrust of the acculturation approach is that immigrants tend to give up maintaining their own ethnic cultural values and practices in order to adopt the mainstream culture of their host country. Cultural pluralism, however, is the perspective that ethnic immigrant groups have a propensity to retain their ethnic languages, culture, and even identity while living in the host society (Gans, 1997). In fact, some cultural traditions of ethnic immigrant groups still appear to be sustained in the United States in conjunction with a large growth of ethnic immigrants from Latin America and Asia over the last several decades (Frey, 2011; US Census Bureau, 2011). Also relevant is that general American laws and policies to protect the rights of ethnic minorities—for example, equal rights and justice in all social institutions, multicultural curricula in educational institutions, and the celebration of ethnic festivals—have led to the maintenance of immigrants’ native cultural traditions in the United States (Alba, 1999).

Two other important markers for immigrants’ retention of their own ethnic cultural practices in the host society are language and food (Van den Berghe, 1984). For most immigrants, ethnic foods, in particular, are seen as the carrier of personal and collective memory, the axis of collective identity, and the promoter of ethnic ties (Bardenstein, 2002; Fisher, 2011). As a whole, ethnic immigrant women play a pivotal role in transmitting ethnic cultural traditions, including ethnic cuisine (Yuval-Davis, 1993). In this study, ethnic culinary repertoires and knowhow are understood as one important manifestation of immigrants’ cultural retention within their new country. Hence, this study examines the themes and specific topics of Korean culinary information requested by some members of the “MissyUSA” community. Thus, it serves as an important network to exchange or transmit information about various Korean culinary traditions and knowledge among its online members.

Transnationalism

Transnationalism refers to “the process by which immigrants forge and sustain multi-stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement” (Basch et al., 1994: 27). In the related literature, immigrants’ interconnections over national borders have been discussed in the spheres of economic activities (remittances, businesses), political participation (dual citizenship), ties with the families in their homeland, or cross-cultural connections (transnational identity) (Faist, 2000; Levitt and Jaworsky, 2007). With the rapid development of aviation and information and communication technologies, especially the Internet, it is now possible for many immigrants to build or maintain their transnational activities in a variety of ways.

First, this study focuses on the kind of transnational connectivity among a select group of immigrants who participate in their ethnic online community. In fact, all of the women who participate in the “MissyUSA” community cannot be classified as typical transmigrants, those whose lives heavily depend upon constant interconnections across nation-state boundaries (Glick Schiller et al., 1995). Instead, some might be classified as occasional transmigrants who are often inclined to search for transnational-level information at the time when they need it most. More specifically, this study analyzes “MissyUSA” members’ connectivity across nation-states from the perspective of their personal, upcoming plans. This is a unique type of transnationalism that relies heavily upon immigrants’ personal perception. In turn, their perceptions on the necessity of transnational connectivity can lead them to seek the information that is adequately suited to facilitate their transnational plans. Hence, this study introduces the themes and specific topics of their transnational plans in both their countries of origin (Korea) and destination (United States). Ultimately, the “MissyUSA” community becomes an online conduit that plays an important role of transmitting transnational-level information among their online members.

Ethnic online community as social capital: social support

As some online communities serve as social resources for its members, so do they often become networks of social support (Rheingold, 2000; Wellman, 2001). In the “MissyUSA” community, social support for some information seekers is manifested through the messages posted in response to posts seeking information. At this point, one important question that needs to be answered is in what ways these respondents support the information seekers.

In general, they can be broadly classified into two groups. First, one group of its respondents is instrumental guides for information seekers. More specifically, these instrumental guides can be divided into two subgroups: information conveyers and advisors. The major role of information conveyers is just to provide their knowledge, with or without explaining the specific background, onset, contents, process, or outcomes regarding the core elements of the inquiry. Aside from information conveyers, information advisers take charge of correcting misinformation or providing their ideas or suggestions as supplemental or alternative solutions. The second group of its respondents is emotional supporters (encouragers) who express their sympathy or demand more efforts of the information seekers and/or posting their own past or current experiences or stories (companions). In some cases, some respondents tend to conduct the joint roles of both instrumental guides and emotional supporters in assisting the information seekers.

A Korean-American women’s online community

During the past four decades, the Korean population in the United States has grown from almost 800,000 in 1990 to more than 1.4 million in 2010 (Min, 2012). Thus, accessibility to information on employment, housing, local community, or children’s schools can be crucial for their settlement process in American society. As the Internet plays a pivotal role in providing useful information to many information-seeking Korean-American s, a website called “MissyUSA” (missyusa.com) was selected for analysis as it is known to be the largest Korean-American online community in North America: as of November 2002, the estimated total number of members was more than 13,000 (The Chosun Ilbo, 23 July 2003). Full membership is permitted only to married Korean-American women and, recently, married Korean-Canadian women. The homepage of the “MissyUSA” website offers a list of links, such as talk lounge, health and beauty, home and food, motherhood, life information, commerce, missy writer, and missy shopping. This study focused on the messages posted on the “Life Q & A” message board within its talk lounge page; its message board can be accessed by anyone, including Korean-American men.

There is an exceedingly large number of daily postings on its “Life Q & A” message board. For example, from 1 January 2011 to 20 July 2012, the total number of postings (inquiries only) on its “Life Q & A” message board was 222,985, an average of 447 per day. As a result of such a high volume of postings, this study has selected a manageable sample of only those postings with over 100 views between 1 January and 15 January 2012, and between 15 February and 29 February 2012. A total of 13,475 messages (inquiries only) were posted during these two half-month periods of 2012. Of these, 4515 postings were viewed more than 100 times each. In classifying them according to general issues or themes, all of these postings (4515) have to do directly or indirectly with culture; laws, regulations and welfare; house or home; health or nutrition; school or education; visit or relocation; finance; technology; marital relationship; work; consumer products; beauty; and others.

This study is interested in only those posts directly or indirectly related to the aforementioned three immigration research areas. Based on these criteria, 531 out of 4515 postings (almost 12%) were selected. As the first step of this study’s analytical strategy, all of the inquiries have been divided into two parts: one for any inquiries on assimilation, ethnic retention, and transnationalism and the other for all other inquiries. In the second step, these messages of inquiry were further sorted according to two dimensions of three key concepts, respectively: (1) inquiries about legal immigration status (permanent resident status or citizenship through naturalization), and all other inquiries pertaining to issues of assimilation; (2) inquiries about ethnic culinary culture, and all other inquiries pertaining to research on cultural pluralism; and (3) inquiries about transnational plans, and all other inquiries relating to research on transnationalism. In general, these two steps of the classification were based on the most salient argument, point, or idea in the text of each message rather than upon specific words, phrases, or separate sentences. Almost all postings are written in Korean; although there are some posts in English, they are very rare. All postings written in Korean were translated into English by an expert who is bilingual in Korean and English.

The “MissyUSA” community as the source of information

The “Life Q & A” message board is an important online venue for its information seekers. Indeed, it provides its members a great opportunity to assess a wide range of immigration-related information.

Legal immigration status

To potential seekers and some current applicants for either US legal permanent resident status or American citizenship through naturalization, the “Life Q & A” message board is a useful online site for them to seek information about either or both of them. In analyzing 531 postings, 87 of them were related to the messages requesting information for legal permanent resident status (44) and naturalized citizenship status (43). Table 1 presents this summary according to the themes, topics, and their frequencies.

Table 1.

Lists of information inquiries about permanent resident status and citizenship (N=87).

Themes and topics	N
Permanent resident status
Period	10
Qualification	8
Sponsorship	8
Documents	7
Moving	5
Immigration lawyer	4
Renewal	3
Interview or fingerprint	2
Processing fees	2
Others	5
	44
Citizenship
Documents	9
Qualification	7
Interview, test, or fingerprint	6
Name change	4
Moving or trip	4
Period	2
Denial	2
Processing fees	2
Maintenance of legal status	2
Citizenship oath ceremony	2
Others	3
	43

Messages seeking information about legal permanent resident status include such diverse topics as period, qualification, sponsorship, documents, and the like. Notably, the period of time required to receive a permanent resident card (a green card) fell under the most frequently asked questions. Under this topic, however, the postings of inquiries differed in content, such as the various types of family-based immigration (spouse, unmarried child under the age of 21, unmarried sons or daughters over the age of 21, parents, or siblings). For instance, one member asked on the “Life Q & A” message board; “How long does it take to receive my own green card if I get married to a green card holder?” (5 January 2012). The second most prevalent topic was eligibility requirements for permanent residency in the United States based upon undocumented immigration status, no previous income tax report, criminal record, divorce, or the minimum duration of residence. For instance, one person wrote, “I am currently an illegal immigrant … Am I eligible to become a legal permanent resident if I am being married to a U.S. citizen?” (3 January 2012).

Another eight posts contained the messages requesting sponsorship-related information (employment-based sponsorship, the size and types of sponsoring companies, and financial support). To illustrate, someone posted, “I am looking for a company that sponsors the application for my permanent residence … Is there anyone who knows any fashion firms sponsoring permanent residence for their newly hired employees in New York areas?” (10 January 2012). Questions regarding the kinds of documents that should be prepared in the application for permanent residence were raised by six members. The information seekers of this sort generally wanted to know whether or not they omitted some important documents, in addition to application forms, such as personal checks, photos, birth certificate, marriage license, copies of bank statements, lease, and contract. Some other frequently asked questions were about what to do while moving or traveling under pending adjustment of status at the US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) or their loss of green cards. There were also some posts seeking information about the recommendation (immigration lawyers), the renewal of green cards, the projected times for their green card interview or fingerprint, and processing fees.

The second panel of Table 2 presents a summary of information requests for citizenship through naturalization. Of all inquiries for information on naturalized citizenship, popular topics were documents, qualifications, interview, and the citizenship test. In the topic of documents, included are one’s own preparation of the citizenship application and the types of documents that should be included in the application of citizenship through naturalization. As one member wrote,

I already mailed the applications for U.S. citizenship [N-400 Form] for my husband and me to the USCIS. But, we forgot writing my multiple traffic violations … very worried about an incorrect report of my past. I wonder whether this matter can affect the USCIS’s decision to grant me citizenship. (2 January 2012)

Table 2.

A list of information inquiries about Korean cuisines and related topics (N=230).

Themes and topics	Items	N
Staple foodstuffs
Vegetables, beans, potatoes, or fruits	Cabbage kimchi, diced radish kimchi, water-based radish kimchi, kimchi fried rice, kimchi dumplings, young radish kimchi, soft tofu stew, soybean paste stew, potato stew, pumpkin soup, cabbage soup, spinach soup, pickled garlic, baked sweet potato, kimchi pancakes, seasoned beans, steamed buns, and so on	50
Beef, pork, or poultry	Seasoned barbequed beef, beef-rib stew, beef-rib soup, beef soup, hot spicy meat soup, boiled beef or pork, pork belly, seasoned barbequed pork, pork cutlet, pork chops, chicken soup, boiled chicken, seasoned spicy chicken, bone soup, beef soup served with rice, and so on	30
Fish or seafood	Seafood pot stew, hot-sauced fish stew, fishcake soup, frozen pollack stew, deep-fried shrimp, sliced fish mix with rice and vegetables, seafood pancake, and so on	25
Rice	Steamed rice, multigrain rice, rice-cake soup, rice noodle, gimbap (dried seaweed rolls), bibimbap (rice and vegetables cooked in a pot), and so on	16
Recommendation	Lunch menus, guest foods from Korea or foreigners, and feast food	29
Korean restaurants		19
Grocery stores		18
Brands	Rice, meat, pork, chicken, fish, vegetables, and so on	15
Kitchen and culinary utensils	Electric rice cooker, kimchi refrigerator, pot, and food spin-dryer	10
Storage	Steamed rice, kimchi, and side dishes	6
Others	Eating habits, making side dishes, scales (pound), English name, and so on, and personal episode	12

Next, eight members asked for information regarding qualifications for the application of citizenship in light of their own unique backgrounds or situations, such as divorce from a US citizen after the acquisition of green cards, unemployment, criminal records, traffic violations, recipients of food stamps or state health aid, or bankruptcy. The questions about preparation for the naturalization interview and test (the US history and civics test) and the English tests (reading and writing) were asked by six members. One member wrote, “I have no knowledge about my naturalization interview and civics test … Can you recommend any study guide or provide some tips to pass both of them?” (25 February 2012). Besides, there were also some other topics, such as name change, relocation or travel upon submission of applications, the period of time taken for the naturalization process, citizenship denial, processing fees, and the maintenance of legal immigration status under pending citizenship status.

Ethnic culinary culture

Through connections over the “Life Q & A” message board, some members can have the opportunity to acquire some knowhow about traditional Korean foods and cuisines from other members. Even for members who are skilled at preparing Korean cuisine, online connections enable them to exchange information with other participating Korean food experts regarding Korean dishes. Overall, the retention of Korean culinary traditions and knowledge in the United States is made possible through the active learning of Korean culinary culture by using this “MissyUSA” message board. Of the 531 postings analyzed, 230 messages related to information requests for Korean culinary knowledge, skills, or the other closely related topics. Table 2 presents a detailed list of these inquiries.

More than half of these postings (121 out of 230) were messages seeking information about the preparation of a wide variety of Korean dishes. To begin with, the theme of stable foodstuffs can be divided into four distinct categories (or topics). The first category of stable foodstuffs includes vegetables, beans, potatoes, and fruits—all of which are the items used in popular Korean recipes like cabbage kimchi, diced radish kimchi, water-based radish kimchi, and others. For example, one member wrote,

I purchased two boxes of cabbages, and then, attempted to make cabbage kimchi with a mix of salt, hot pepper, and other spices. But, the taste of kimchi was dull … very frustrated about this unanticipated result. So, I need your advice to make tasteful kimchi. (3 January 2012)

Beef, pork, and poultry comprise the second category of stable foodstuffs. Popular Korean recipes that include them are seasoned barbequed beef, beef-rib stew, beef-rib soup, beef soup, hot spicy meat soup, and others. For example, one member asked,

I have some guests this evening … I am now thinking to serve seasoned barbequed beef to them. I recognize that I need to add pieces of pineapple to make delicious barbequed beef. Because pineapple is not available this time, can I add slices of apple instead? (20 February 2012)

Fish and seafood belong to the third category of stable foodstuffs. Popular Korean dishes (or items) that include these ingredients are seafood pot stew, hot-sauced fish stew, fishcake soup, frozen pollack stew, deep-fried shrimp, stir-fried anchovies, and others. One member made the following inquiry: “I want to cook hot-sauced fish stew. I am not sure of what type of fish I should buy at the market … What would you recommend?” (22 February 2012). Rice, as the fourth category of staple foodstuffs, is used as the key ingredient of such Korean cuisines as steamed rice, multigrain rice, rice-cake soup, rice noodle, rice-cake dumpling soup, gimbap [dried seaweed rolls], and bibimbap [rice with vegetables]. One member wrote, “I have been married for ten years. I still have trouble in making rice noodles. To taste its real texture, can I share your secret method for making it?” (4 January 2012). Other inquiries seeking information on Korean cuisine included items such as requests for recommendations of certain Korean dishes, the whereabouts of Korean restaurants, the name and/or location of Korean grocery stores, product brands, and kitchen knowledge. As one member wrote,

Our family used to buy a Japanese brand of rice. Almost two weeks ago, one of my friends sent me a sack of rice which brand is distributed by one Korean company. This Korean rice gave our family members settled very well with our stomachs … I want to try another brand of Korean rice. Can you recommend some other Korean brands of rice that also provide a good taste? (4 January 2012)

Transnationalism

In this article, Korean-American women’s transnational plans are viewed as an aspect of transnationalism that involves a lasting connectivity between Korea and the United States. Furthermore, these transnational plans are further divided into two broad themes. The first is “For Korea or in Korea” to distinguish between online members who ask what to do for their future visit to Korea and those information seekers who are presently visiting Korea. In contrast, the second theme is “In America or for America” to distinguish between online members who ask for advice regarding their connection to Korea (Korean society) from the United States and those requesting information regarding their return to the United States from their current stay in Korea. Overall, 214 out of 531postings were messages requesting information about cross-national plans. Table 3 presents two lists of messages seeking information about transnational plans.

Table 3.

Lists of information inquiries about transnational plans (N=214).

Themes and topics	N
For Korea or in Korea
Airplane tickets	43
Places to stay or to visit	21
Gifts	12
Wire transfer	9
Package delivery	8
Consumer items	8
Information and communications technologies	8
Medical costs or services	5
Banking	5
American citizenship	3
International phone call	3
Others	7
In America or for America
Korean broadcasting	20
Wire transfer	14
Consumer items	13
Korean citizenship	11
Information and communications technologies	8
Package delivery	5
Businesses	4
Comparisons	3
Others	3

Under the theme “For Korea or in Korea” (132 postings), specific topics were classified according to frequency: airplane tickets (prices, making reservations, travel agencies, airlines, or airline services), places to stay or to visit in Korea (accommodation, places worth visiting), gifts to buy for friends and family members in Korea, wire transfer from the United States to Korea, package delivery from the United States to Korea (items, delivery methods, customs formalities), consumer items to bring into Korea (permitted or recommendable items), information and communication technologies in Korea (how to use high-tech devices), medical costs or services in Korea (surgery, dental treatment), banking in Korea (credit cards, bank accounts), American citizenship (rules or regulations), phone calls to Korea, and Others (recommendations for beauty salons in Korea, passports, visas, living costs, or personal tips for a good experience in Korea).

Several illustrations of some topics in this theme are as follows. One post was made under the topic of airplane tickets by someone writing, “I am going to visit Korea in late August … I didn’t buy my round-trip ticket yet. If I buy it in early August, do you think that its price can be a little bit cheap?” (23 February 2012). As for a case of package delivery from the United States to Korea, a member wrote,

I sent my sister in Korea a package of two pairs of shoes and T-shirts by a shipping company. When I checked its location via the computer, I found out that my package had been stuck in Korean Customs over a week. I am not sure why it wasn’t delivered to my sister … (24 February 2012)

Under the topic of medical costs or services in Korea, one member wrote, “As soon as I visit Korea, I am going to have plastic surgery … Can you recommend one of its clinics or hospitals that have already gained great reputations in the field?” (20 February 2012).

In the second theme of “In America or for America” (81 postings), there were various topics: Korean broadcasting in the United States (Korean TV dramas, movies, music, news, or sports), wire transfer from Korea to the United States, consumer items to bring into the United States (permitted or recommendable items), Korean citizenship in the United States (rules or regulations), information and communications technologies in the United States (the methods to use high-tech devices to connect to Korea or someone in Korea), package delivery from Korea to the United States (items, delivery methods, or customs formalities), businesses across both countries, comparisons between both countries (consumer goods’ qualities or prices), and Others (the price of airline tickets for America, birth registration in Korea, or voter’s registration for Korean elections).

As an illustration of the topic of Korean broadcasting in the United States, one member wrote, “I want to watch Korean TV dramas … in a legal way by paying a membership fee. Can you introduce me one of its legal websites?” (28 February 2012). On the topic of consumer items to bring into the United States, one member posted, “After one more week of my stay in Korea, I will return to America. Can I bring some dried persimmons in?” (11 January 2012). One example of seeking information about Korean citizenship in the United States was a member who wrote, “I have a 5-year-old son who was born in the US. My husband and I are green card holders here … Should we report his birth in Korea?” (23 February 2012). On the topic of businesses across both countries, one person asked,

I am the owner of a clothing store in Koreatown in New York City … Without visiting Korea, I want to purchase a variety of high-quality and relatively cheap clothes through online clothing sites. Can you inform me of those websites? (22 February 2012)

The “MissyUSA” community as a network of social support

Upon receiving requests for information about permanent legal status in the United States, Korean culinary knowledge or techniques, and transnational plans, some members of the “MissyUSA” community (respondents) offer social support to inquirers as revealed in how they convey information (description, advice) and/or emotional support (encouragement, companionship). Here, I will briefly introduce some specific examples of their social support patterns for legal immigration status, the retention of ethnic culinary culture, and transnational plans, respectively. First, as an example of some respondents’ social support for the inquirer regarding legal immigration status, the post stated, “I was scheduled to take my English tests for my naturalization next month. I am very worried about my written English test, in particular. Can you suggest any good ideas to handle this?” (24 February, 2012). There were five messages in response to this inquiry:

I took my written English test 6 years ago. It was just a simple dictation test. (Respondent 1)

There was only one question in my case. The question I received was that she wanted to live near her brother. (Respondent 2)

You need to study the vocabularies that appear in the citizenship exam preparation workbook … You can download this from the USCIS website. You don’t have to worry about it. In fact, those vocabularies are very easy to learn. (Respondent 3)

http://www.passcitizenshipexam.com/newCivicsTest/test.html. (Respondent 4)

It was very simple. My question was that you can vote. Don’t worry. (Respondent 5)

All of these five respondents took on the role of information conveyers to the inquirer. Besides, two of them (3 and 5) were also emotional encouragers to the inquirer.

Second, the retention of Korean culinary practices in the United States can also be analyzed from the frame of social support. For example, one member posted, “I want to make water-based radish kimchi. This is my first time to try this. Then the radishes I bought are too dirty. Do I have peel off their skins?” (5 January 2012). There were four response messages to this inquiry:

As far as I know, just wash the radishes and don’t peel their skins off. Then soak them in water with coarse salt. After that, you can make water-based radish kimchi. (Respondent 1)

You don’t have to peel their skins off. For several hours, soak them with coarse salt. Also, add fermented pepper there … water-based radish kimchi will taste better. (Respondent 2)

If you already peeled their skins off, it doesn’t matter at all. At first, wash the radishes clean … soak them in salt water almost for a full day. It will taste good. (Respondent 3)

You should keep in mind that the taste of water-based radish kimchi actually depends on how to soak radishes. (Respondent 4)

The role of instrumental guides—here, the description of information and advice—for the inquirer was conducted by all four respondents.

Last, some members of the “MissyUSA” community also played the role of social supporters for the inquirers seeking information about transnational plans. One member wrote,

I need to have one of my teeth crowned. Here, its cost amounts to almost $1,000 without endodontic treatment. This summer, I am going to Korea. Is it a good idea that I put the crown of my tooth in Korea? (19 February 2012)

There were six messages in response to this inquiry:

Its cost may be almost over $300 in Korea. Do it there. (Respondent 1)

Its full crown costs $500 in Korea. (Respondent 2)

I did it in Korea last fall by paying for $300. Of course, you can put a crown valued at $500. (Respondent 3)

Here I paid for almost $1,000 to replace my broken crown without endodontic treatment … If I were in your place, I would do it in Korea. (Respondent 4)

Can you believe that it costs $3,600 in Manhattan? (Respondent 5)

American dentists recommend a porcelain crown, not a gold one. When you smile, a gold crown looks awkward. If you want to wear a porcelain crown here, its cost will not be as expensive as you thought. (Respondent 6)

All six respondents belong to the subgroup of information conveyers for the inquirer. In addition, Respondent 4 also performed the role of an information advisor. In summary, a common point across all of the above illustrations is that the conveyance of information and the emergence of a subgroup of social supporters are characteristic of the responses to posts seeking information on immigration.

Conclusion

This study of the “MissyUSA” community has incorporated the concept of social capital (social resources comprising information and social support) with a focus on three important immigration research areas—legal immigration status in assimilation, the retention of Korean culinary culture in cultural pluralism, and transnational plans in transnationalism. The community’s “Life Q & A” message board has functioned as the platform for some of its members to post a wide range of messages about those immigration issues. After analyzing these posts seeking information about legal immigration status, ethnic culinary culture, or transnational plans, there is compelling evidence that for its inquirers, the “MissyUSA” community becomes the critical source of their social resources, as a form of social capital, and in particular, an important source of information. Indeed, there were various kinds of information sought by inquirers, that is, background, cases, substance, process, and outcomes. Likewise, the contents of information posted by its inquirers embraced a wide variety of topics under each theme; for example, the theme of naturalized citizenship included topics such as detailed documents, qualifications, procedures, each step of the interviewing process, and methods to prepare for the citizenship test.

For information seekers, the “MissyUSA” community is very efficient in the realms of time, cost—both tangible and intangible, and the maintenance of relationships among its online members. However, their requests for information on the “Life Q & A” message board appear to reflect their efforts to find a clue for improving their knowledge and/or deciding on their subsequent course of action. Besides, the specificity of most of their inquiries indicates that their efforts to cope with their personal or family issues or needs are what motivated them to post the messages requesting information. Although its members remain anonymous to one another, their decision to post messages about their personal lives or circumstances results obviously from their expectation that some members will provide valuable information or advice at their request. In fact, a sense of belonging among its members is what makes the “MissyUSA” online community become a true community. To some of its members (inquirers), their sense of belonging makes them feel comfortable about requesting information from other members (respondents).

Social support is the other form of social capital that is accessible through the “MissyUSA” community. In this study, the dissemination of information online was the most important role among the respondents who commented on inquiry postings. Sometimes, emotional support for the inquirers was also expressed in some respondents’ messages. A sense of belonging, like in the case of social resources (information), is also the basic foundation for social support for inquirers from the members who respond with encouragement and morale-boosting words.

At this juncture, it is not difficult to speculate about the root causes of a sense of belonging among members of the “MissyUSA” community. First, it is essentially grounded in their “communal sharing of culture” in history, identity, experiences, and rituals (Etzioni and Etzioni, 2001: 93). After immigration to the United States, many first-generation Korean Americans still have a vivid memory or imagery of their past lives in their home country (Korea), a nation that is highly racially homogeneous and very group-oriented in cultural orientations—for example, collective values, norms, identity, and practices (Kim, 2008; Min, 1998). Second, almost all postings on the “MissyUSA” community were written in Korean. Indeed, a sense of belonging among “MissyUSA” members has evolved after they, as people from the same linguistic culture, constructed a very similar mental world in ways to share their values, norms, emotions, and behaviors (Chayko, 2002). Third, members of the “MissyUSA” community immigrated to the United States (or Canada) and were married, just as many of them are full-time homemakers with primary responsibilities for child-rearing and children’s education, and suffer from relatively poor English language skills. Thus, their sense of belonging is also deeply rooted in their similar demographic statuses together with their commonly shared interests and life experiences in their new country (Ignacio, 2005; Mitra, 2001, 2005). In turn, “MissyUSA” members’ sense of belonging that is manifested in their inquiries or offers of social support is the embodiment of their shared mother tongue (Korean), culture, birth country (Korea), positions in the family (a housewife and/or mother), and life experiences in their new country (immigration status).

Moreover, a strong sense of belonging among “MissyUSA” members has clearly materialized through their language styles that appear especially in the messages that respond to the postings seeking information. Thus, most “MissyUSA” respondents posted messages that include detailed information with a full explanation and/or emotional support—that is, companionship, sympathy, confidence, or encouragement—to the inquirers. On the other hand, it was rare for “MissyUSA” respondents to use words, phrases, or passages that express disdain, insult, sarcasm, denial, disrespect, or hopelessness. This result is consistent with previous research findings that there exist such female language cues in computer-mediated, text-based communication (Wolf, 2000). Interestingly enough, these linguistic expressions of most “MissyUSA” respondents are also likely to epitomize their gender identity, roles, and expectations as cis-gendered women. However, an in-depth analysis of these aspects is beyond the scope of this article and should be further clarified in future studies.

In summary, this study of the aforementioned three selected immigration research areas, under the concept of social capital and throughout the “MissyUSA” community, has been an attempt to demonstrate the possibility that online discourses among members of some ethnic digital platforms like “MissyUSA” provide excellent material for research on immigration. To put it another way, the in-depth analysis of user-generated content, such as the messages posted on ethnic-specific online communities, can open up a new arena in immigration studies for migration scholars by broadening and deepening their understanding about the settlement process of ethnic immigrants in their new land and the reasons behind their interconnections over national borders.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author biography

Joong-Hwan Oh is Associate Professor of the Sociology Department at Hunter College of the City University of New York. His substantive areas of expertise in sociology are immigration, urban sociology, online communities, race and ethnicity, and East Asia. He has published more than 20 journal articles in these fields. He is also the author of the book entitled Immigration and Social Capital in the Age of Social Media: American Social Institutions and a Korean-American Women’s Online Community (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016).

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