Great expectations? A taxonomy for expectancy research in journalism studies

Dimensions and dimensionality

Expectation dimensions are specifications of the expectation concepts, i.e., they tell us what is expected (e.g., objectivity). For example, the concept of journalistic roles includes specifications such as watchdog, analyst, or educator, which can be considered expectation dimensions of the expectation concept journalistic role. Dimensions of media performance are, e.g., diversity and freedom; and audience members have different preferences that are to be met by media content such as information, entertainment, or participation.

Expectation concepts are theoretical, latent (not directly observable) constructs. As such, an expectation concept may be conceptualized as consisting of one or many expectation dimensions and subdimensions. Figure 1 illustrates that the theoretical conceptualization and operationalization of a particular expectation can differ in the degree of dimensionality: If the expectation at hand is conceptualized by the researcher as comprising only one specific expectation, the researcher’s concept of the expectations is considered to be of low dimensionality. Conceptualizations comprising more than one dimension indicate a medium level of dimensionality, whereas higher-order conceptualizations signify a high level of dimensionality. This is exemplified in Figure 1: For instance, although it can be measured by multiple items, media trust is more often conceptualized one-dimensionally (e.g., Fawzi, 2019). Audience demands, on the other hand, are usually conceptualized as encompassing several components (e.g., van der Wurff and Schoenbach, 2014); journalistic roles can even be conceptualized as being further differentiated into subcomponents (e.g., Raemy et al., 2021). Hence, the degree of dimensionality (high vs low) of an expectation concept can vary, as researchers may prefer a more or less complex theoretical conceptualization or operationalization of the concept in a specific study context.OPEN IN VIEWER

Accordingly, expectation concepts differ in the dimensions, i.e., the specifications of expectations they encompass, and in the degree of their abstractness, depending on whether they are understood and conceptualized as one single expectation, a bundle of expectations, or even more complex expectation structures.

Perspective

When analyzing expectations in a journalistic context, it should be clear from which perspective the expectations are formulated as this results in significant differences with regard to the expectation dimensions. Thus, the criteria perspective of the concept implies that journalism – individual journalists, media organizations, or journalism in general – as well as the audience – individual audience members, audiences as groups, the public or society as a whole – can be expecting entities. Journalistic roles are an example for a multi-perspectival expectation concept, as not only the audience side can share these expectations but also individual journalists, journalistic organizations, or journalism in general. An example for a mono-perspectival expectation concept could be gratifications as an expectation concept which primarily addresses the perspective of the audience.

Objects

In a journalistic context, expectations are directed toward different actors and the journalistic product and process. In digital media environments, however, interaction and participation have become increasingly possible and therefore add a new focus of expectations (Lee, 2015, 2020). Hence, despite the expecting subjects, different expectation objects or properties expectations refer to can be distinguished (Wilhelm et al., 2021): (1) Actors (journalists, journalistic organizations, journalism in general; audience members, audience groups, the public), (2) production process and product, and (3) the interaction between journalists and audience members. Thus, journalistic role concepts such as being a watchdog may refer to expectations journalists, audiences, or the public have of journalists – thus, the latter are expectation objects. The process of production may be expected to be transparent, and, based on previous experience, journalists may perceive their audience as hostile. In the case of media trust, the news media or journalism in general, media types, media organizations, journalists and media content are the objects of expectations (Strömbäck et al., 2020). In the sense of a stronger involvement of the audience side, audience activities (4) such as selection, engagement in formats of participatory journalism, follow-up actions or follow-up communication can be considered as a further object of expectation (Heise et al., 2014; Spyridou, 2019). For example, informed members of the audience can be expected to participate more in public discourse and their acquired knowledge can be expected to have an impact on their political participation.

Level of expectation

Accounting for the level of expectation, first- and second-order expectations can be distinguished. Expectations that relate directly to an object can be classified as first-order expectations, for example, when the audience expects responsiveness from the journalist. Expectations that in turn relate to expectations of the object can be classified as second-order expectations, for example, when journalists expect the audience to expect responsiveness from them. The latter are also termed expected expectations (e.g., Heise et al., 2014).

Level of analysis

Expectation concepts can refer to different levels of abstraction. They can be general, for example, when they are directed toward a community or group, or particularized, if they relate to individuals and their specific behavior (Burgoon, 1993). The perspective and object of expectation concepts can be located at the same level of analysis as well as at different ones. Thus, in a journalistic context, on a micro level, users or audience members, journalists or editorial staff members direct their individual expectations on each other, a specific media product, or the interaction. In this case, both perspective and object of expectations would be allocated on the micro level (micro-micro). For example, reciprocal expectations on the micro level shape interactions between journalists and audience members online. On a meso level, media organizations or audience groups are objects of, for example, micro-level expectations by individual audience members (micro-meso). Meso-level expectations can be formulated in the statutes of a media organization or formulated by the audience council of public media institutions and are directed to individual journalistic behavior or specific media content (meso-micro). In addition, journalism as an essential part of democratic societies (e.g., the role as Fourth Estate) is an object of political and societal expectations from the perspective of national political actors and the public (macro-macro) or from the perspective of specific social groups (e.g., political activists; meso-macro).

Modes

In interpersonal communication research, research on expectations in social interactions distinguishes between predictive, that is, what one believes that others will do, and prescriptive expectations, that is, what is the social norm (Burgoon, 2015; Nicholls and Rice, 2017). As outlined above, depending on the theoretical approach on which the expectation concept is based, expectation dimensions in the journalism-audience relationship are either more likely to be based on norms, previous experiences, or needs. In order to clarify the divergent conceptualizations, three different expectation modes (Biddle, 1986) can be distinguished: ¹ First, most expectation dimensions, especially toward journalism, are prescriptive. As such, they encompass norms related to roles or behaviors and conduct, for example, professionalism, detachment, balance, and diversity. Second, expectation dimensions can be predictive or, more precisely, probabilistic. They express beliefs, views, concepts, or perceptions about objects, processes, and events. As such, they are “subjective probabilities” (Biddle, 1986: 69), what one believes is likely to happen or not. When publishing an article on a controversial issue such as immigration policy or the right to abortion, a journalist may expect a higher amount of uncivil user comments, as she/he has experienced greater incivility in the past when reporting about these issues. Third, they can also be valuative, indicating preferences or attitudes toward expectation objects. Thus, this mode does not only include evaluations of objects (or expressing an attitude towards them) but can also refer to the value ascribed to them in the sense of a preference (Biddle, 1986: 69). For example, audiences may favor entertaining news content or value responsiveness when interacting with journalists. Prescriptive expectations are more likely to operate on the macro or meso level as they base on societal and group-related norms whereas probabilistic and valuative expectations are more likely to be grounded on individual micro-level experiences and needs (Burgoon, 1993).

In some cases, the different modes of expectation can turn out to be contrary in their result. This can be illustrated by the following example: A journalist expects, based on her prior experiences, that the audience will react to her article on a critical topic with a large number of incisive comments. At the same time, the media outlet may have the prescriptive expectation that the audience will behave politely and civilly in debates.

Exemplary application: Classification of the expectation concept journalistic roles

To exemplify how the taxonomy can be used, we apply it to one key expectation concept in journalism research (Table 2), namely journalistic role. In doing so, we demonstrate how the taxonomy can serve to identify research gaps, revealing research foci as well as blind spots. If necessary, we refer to other expectation concepts in order to position the concept in the broader field of expectancy research.

With regard to the degree of dimensionality, the concepts differ strongly: Whereas media trust is often conceptualized as a one-dimensional construct, which is measured by one or more items (e.g., Fawzi and Mothes, 2020; Hanitzsch et al., 2018; Karlsson et al., 2017; Tsfati and Cappella, 2003), the expectation concept journalistic roles is a multi-dimensional construct (e.g., Mellado, 2015). Thus, journalists are expected to fulfill multiple roles that are described in expectation dimensions such as watchdog (e.g., Poindexter et al., 2006; Vos et al., 2019) or analyst (e.g., Riedl and Eberl, 2020; Truyens and Picone, 2021). Moreover, it is sometimes considered a higher-order construct, because the various roles include different subordinate aspects such as being an advocating or monitoring watchdog (Raemy et al., 2021). These multidimensional and higher-order conceptualizations of journalistic roles indicate a high level of theorizing but also standardization compared to less or even a-theoretical concepts of views/perceptions and audiences’ preferences/demands as there are established and well-studied sets of journalistic roles and respective definitions (e.g., Abdennour et al., 2021; Baugut and Scherr, 2021; Heider et al., 2005; Heise et al., 2014; Holton et al., 2016; Mellado, 2015; Poindexter et al., 2006; Raemy et al., 2021; Truyens and Picone, 2021; Van der Wurff and Schoenbach, 2014; Vos et al., 2019).

Journalistic roles mainly describe expectations from the perspective of both the journalist and the audience side. In particular, roles describe what the public, society, and the journalists themselves expect how journalists should work. Empirically, this is operationalized by asking about the importance of the respective tasks in journalists' own work. The multi-perspectivity is increasingly taken into account methodically, in which both journalists and audience members are interviewed about journalistic roles (Heise et al., 2014; Riedl and Eberl, 2020). In a further step, these perspectives are examined with regard to overlaps and discrepancies. The development of new dimensions is also conceivable, for example, if the audience's perspective is taken into account to a greater extent. In empirical studies, the perspective of the expectation concept is regularly made explicitly or implicitly clear by the methodological approach that is chosen. For example, because individual journalists or those responsible for journalistic organizations are interviewed (e.g., Hujanen, 2016) or a quantitative survey of the audience is conducted (e.g., Poindexter et al., 2006). However, in theory sections of empirical journal articles, the perspective is sometimes less evident or multiple perspectives are taken into account (e.g., Koch et al., 2021: 4), although the question whose expectations are taken into account makes a significant difference to the analysis.

With respect to the object of expectations, journalistic roles apparently focus on expectations toward the journalistic side, that is, the actors (e.g., Karlsson et al., 2017; Peifer, 2018; Riedl and Eberl, 2020). In digital media environments, audience members have become much more visible and active in the news production process. Concepts such as participatory journalism (e.g., Karlsson et al., 2015), audience turn (e.g., Costera Meijer, 2020), and affective publics (e.g., Papacharissi, 2015) illustrate these developments. This change is not sufficiently reflected in previous research, and expectations toward audiences and the resulting consequences for journalistic roles as well as expectations toward the mutual interaction have played little role to date (Wilhelm et al., 2021). However, the concept has been expanded in a few studies to include more recent roles that incorporate constructive as well as participatory elements and audience engagement (e.g., Loosen et al., 2020).

Regarding the level of expectation, journalistic roles can act as first-order as well as second-order expectations. The latter are a central part of the concept that assumes journalists to anticipate role conceptions of society and the public.

In expectancy research, studies which clearly indicate the level of analysis on which level expectations are located are scarce (e.g., Strömbäck et al., 2020; Tenenboim and Kligler-Vilenchik, 2020). Journalistic roles are mainly analyzed on meso and macro levels because the associated expectations are directed either to a journalistic organization (e.g., many people expect public service media to offer a higher information quality than other media organizations, Sehl, 2020) or toward journalism in general (e.g., Fourth Estate, Garnier et al., 2020). In theory, journalistic role expectations predominantly address journalists as representatives of journalism as an essential societal institution, that is, journalism as a whole should take a controlling, informing or otherwise specified role (e.g., Tandoc Jr. and Duffy, 2016). However, empirically, individual journalists are asked about the importance of different journalistic tasks (e.g., monitor political leaders, provide information) in their own work. Also, in digital media environments new journalistic roles are allocated on the micro level, e.g., addressing their participatory or engaging role (Heise et al., 2014).

Regarding expectation mode, journalistic roles are usually prescriptive in nature. That is, they include notions about how journalism should be and what journalists should do. This could be different from what they are actually doing in their daily work, which aligns with the distinction between (prescriptive) role conceptions and role performance (Mellado, 2015). Whether they also include valuative components, for example, whether audiences prefer entertainers over mobilizers, seems to be a question of the perspective from which expectations are held. To sum up, the application of the taxonomy to journalistic roles revealed the multidimensionality and complexity of this expectation concept in relation to other expectation concepts such as audience preferences/demands and gratifications. So far, it strongly focuses on prescriptive meso- and macro-level expectations toward journalism as an expectation object. In contrast, journalistic roles that address micro-level expectations related to participation and interaction, which are gaining further relevance in digital media environments (e.g., Lee, 2015, 2020; Wilhelm et al., 2021), still remain understudied (Van der Wurff and Schoenbach, 2014). The example of journalistic roles shows that expectation concepts and their dimensions can be formulated from different perspectives. Here, discrepancies in the meaning and weighting of expectation dimensions can also be examined and new questions can be developed accordingly. They thus form the starting point for further theoretical development of the expectation concept.