Measuring adolescents’ tourism satisfaction: The role of mood and perceived parental style

Abstract

Adolescents have become an attractive market for tourism because they represent a sizeable population segment with an increasing influence on family purchases. There is an urgent need to understand adolescents’ needs, motivations, and role in the tourism industry, particularly the factors that may affect their tourism satisfaction. This study highlights the importance of adolescents’ mood and the style in which they have been parented as under-researched factors affecting young people’s tourism satisfaction. The focus of the study is Ali Sadr cave, a well-known tourist destination for families in Iran. In 2016, questionnaires were distributed to 360 tourists ranging in age from 11 to 18 years. Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation analysis, and multiple regressions were run on the 354 useable responses. Results showed, firstly, that 60.2% of the respondents had high levels of satisfaction with mean scores above 3.5 for all items. Secondly, the dominant parenting style, as perceived by the adolescents, was authoritative. Finally, there was a significant and positive relationship between authoritative parenting style and positive mood in relation to adolescents’ basic needs satisfaction. Authoritarian parenting style and negative mood had a significant and negative relationship with the satisfaction of all three basic needs, namely autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Permissiveness had a positive relationship with only two of the needs – autonomy and relatedness.

Keywords

Parental style adolescent tourism satisfaction mood self-determination theory

Introduction

Children in general and adolescents in particular represent a significant proportion of most national populations (Carr, 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2017) defines ‘adolescents’ as individuals between 10 and 19 years old. Similarly, Carr (2006) stated the core adolescent years are typically defined as between 12 and 17 years old, those years between childhood and adulthood (Spiers, 2017). Adolescents have become an attractive market not only because of their large share of the population and their growing consumption habits but also due to their increasing influence on their family’s purchases (Gaumer and Arnone, 2010). In fact, families with adolescents form a significant portion of the sizeable and fast-growing family tourism market (Carr, 2011; Schänzel and Smith, 2014; Small, 2008). The desire of parents to spend extended time with their children may be one of the reasons why, especially once children enter adolescence and begin increasingly to give voice to their own desires, parents are willing to compromise their own holiday wishes to ensure the family goes on holiday together (Carr, 2011). The voices presented within families are becoming increasingly inclusive, reflecting the more active participation of children, and adolescents within research and family life (Schänzel and Carr, 2016).

Adolescence is viewed as the most traumatic or challenging period within the parent–child relationship, since parents can either facilitate or undermine children’s intrinsic motivation and internalisation (Joussemet et al., 2008). One of the most studied approaches to understanding parental influences on human development is the concept of parenting style (Gafoor and Kurukhan, 2014). Parental style reflects a family socialisation context in which parents reach their parental goals and transfer values to their children through parenting practices (Bao et al., 2007). Based on Baumrind’s (1991) classification, parenting style can be classed as ‘authoritative’, ‘authoritarian’, or ‘permissive’. Based on self-determination theory (SDT), the three basic psychological needs – namely competence, autonomy, and relatedness – can either be supported or challenged by social contexts, including parenting styles (Ryan and Deci, 2000). In the tourism context, a study by Shavanddasht and Schänzel (2017) suggests specific parenting practices, such as involvement, knowledge, and control, can affect adolescents’ motivations and tourism experiences.

In recent years, there have been an increasing number of studies, which have investigated relationships between parental styles and children in different sciences such as physical education, education, and psychology and in various fields including school achievement, mental health, self-satisfaction, well-being, psychological needs, social power, and behavioural problems. Parenting style is then an important aspect to research concerning adolescents. However, in terms of tourism, the significant issue of parental influence on a child’s development is under researched. As already noted, there is only one study in which the relationship between adolescents’ tourism motivations and their perceived parenting styles has been investigated. In fact, in the study by Shavanddasht and Schänzel (2017) in a different tourism context in Iran, the significant relationship between more self-determined motivations and a more liberal parental style, such as the authoritative parenting style, has been proven. Therefore, taking into account the significance of this factor for tourism studies, there is an urgent need to investigate the role of parental styles in other tourism dimensions such as adolescent satisfaction.

Moreover, many authors have noted that more research about the effects of emotions and mood states on consumer behaviour is needed (Holbrook and Gardner, 2000; Howard and Gengler, 2001; Gountas and Gountas, 2004). Holbrook and Gardner (2000) stated that how the moods and emotions affect the consumer’s level of satisfaction is the most important question (Gountas and Gountas, 2004). Khademi (2010) have addressed ‘mood’ as a significant feature of adolescents and Weinstein and Mermelstein (2007) stated that mood and emotional volatility is a well-documented but under-researched feature of adolescence, which also applies for tourism. It means the role of mood as an affective state informing adolescent tourism satisfaction has received scant attention.

This article, then, ensures more attention is paid to these two factors of mood and adolescents, instead of focusing on more ‘traditional’ aspects of tourism (e.g. motivations and adults). Informed by a conceptual framework, this study investigated the potential relationship between adolescents’ needs satisfaction, their perception of the style in which they have been parented, and their mood states, in a tourism context in Iran.

Literature review

Adolescents, families, and tourism

Families are recognised as a prominent decision-making and consumption unit in marketing, consumer behaviour, and the tourism literature (Blichfeldt, 2008; Lehto et al., 2012; Nanda et al., 2007; Spiers, 2017). In relation to research on family holidays, traditionally the parents act as respondents (Nickerson and Jurowski, 2001); firstly, because it is assumed that the parents qualify as reliable respondents (Blichfeldt et al., 2010) and, secondly, because children have traditionally been viewed as unsophisticated or incompetent respondents (Schänzel and Carr, 2016). There are few studies investigating the family holiday experiences of children that treat children as active agents (e.g. Carr, 2006, 2011; Hilbrecht et al., 2008; Small, 2008). Similarly, Carr (2011) indicated that the majority of the studies have tended to provide adult-oriented examinations, generally viewing children as passive objects and, as a result, rarely collecting any information directly from them.

Studies on family holiday decision-making are a case in point. At first, these studies focused on the husband and wife dyadic and only to a lesser extent on children (Blichfeldt et al., 2010). Blichfeldt et al. (2011) claimed that most researchers argue that children’s role in decision-making is a rather passive one and that the parents have the final say (Wang et al., 2004). More recently, the voices of children are being heard and there are increasingly studies that actively include children (e.g. Gram, 2007; Nickerson and Jurowski, 2001; Schänzel and Smith, 2014). As Schor (2004) notes, children today wield far more power in family decision-making processes than has traditionally tended to be the case (Carr, 2011). There are two main reasons: first, children today become more active participants in family decision-making process (Therkelsen, 2010; Yeoman et al., 2012). They are ‘no longer submissive to parental choices, they want to get involved and be a part of the planning process’ (Nayak, 2016: 89). Second, as Gram (2007) noted, parents are more willing to listen to them and accommodate their desires as well as encouraging their children to give active voice to their desires (Carr, 2011). Connell (2005) suggested that the emergent potential of children to be active participants in family decision-making processes is a consequence of more liberal parental styles that have emerged in the latter part of the 20th century. It becomes very much a two-way process: informed children with supportive parents wanting to ensure quality family time on holiday (Carr, 2011; Gram, 2007).

Today, fulfilling children’s needs becomes an integral part of a holiday (Blichfeldt et al., 2010) since parents value the opportunity to spend quality time with their children and this has become ever more desired in modern society (Lehto et al., 2009). In fact, fulfilling children’s wishes and keeping them happy is an important aspect of parenting (Schänzel and Yeoman, 2014), especially as a reaction to the perception that parents are too busy and have less time to relax, play, communicate, and share meals with their children (Fountain et al., 2015). It is important that children are not considered as a homogenous group as age is a big differentiator (from infancy to adolescence) with different needs at different developmental stages (Schänzel and Yeoman, 2014). Nanda et al. (2007) stated that the place of children in the family and their influence on other family members is likely to depend on their age. Increasing age may also bring an ability to negotiate, thereby creating an expectation of flexibility or willingness to accept compromises not expected from younger children (Khoo-Lattimore et al., 2015). In this way, adolescents have a large role in family decision-making processes including when on holiday. One of the most important reasons for the increasing influence of adolescents is that ‘as demographic and social structures are changing, the traditional power relation within the family is altering and this leads to children’s growing influence within the family’ (Holzmüller, 2014: 17). Spiers (2017) states that adolescents demonstrate better consumer skills and understanding of economic concepts and are more rational than younger children.

Entering adolescence, children begin to refine and articulate their own holiday motivations and desires as distinct from those of the family and their parents (Decrop, 2005). It is clear that, although becoming independent from their parents may be a primary concern of adolescents, this does not necessarily mean they do not appreciate spending time with them while on holiday. Indeed, Kränzl-Nagl and Beham (2007: 1) stated that even older children ‘demand attention from their parents and want them to be available for them’. Indeed, while it is apparent that a significant number of adolescents do not wish to holiday with their parents, an equally significant number are very happy to do so (Carr, 2011). Overall, there is an urgent need to understand adolescents’ needs, motivations, and role in the tourism industry, particularly the factors that may affect their tourism satisfaction. This study highlights the importance of adolescents’ mood and the style in which they are parented as influencers of their tourism satisfaction, informing the conceptual framework below (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework for measuring adolescents’ tourism needs satisfaction.

Parental style, SDT, satisfaction

Parental styles are defined as the behaviours, attitudes, and values parents use to determine how they interact with their children (Cripps and Zyromski, 2009). Baumrind’s parental style typology is composed of three distinctive types of parental control: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive (Bao et al., 2007). Each style demonstrates a particular relationship that occurs between the parents and children at a specific point in time. Firstly, authoritarian parents attempt to shape, control, and evaluate the behaviour and attitudes of the child in terms of a set of standards. Obedience is all-important and imposed with harsh punishment (Roman et al., 2016). Children of authoritarian parents are notably ‘unhappy, fearful, anxious about comparing themselves with others, fail to initiate activity, and have weak communication skills’ (Cripps and Zyromski, 2009: 6). Secondly, authoritative parents are warm and nurturing, create a loving home environment and provide a high degree of emotional support. Children of parents who exercise the authoritative parenting style are notably ‘often cheerful, self-controlled, self-reliant, achievement-oriented, maintain friendly relations with peers, cooperate with adults, and cope well with stress’ (Santrock, 2004: 277). Finally, Spera (2005: 134) asserted ‘permissive parents score moderately high on measures of responsiveness and low on measures of maturity demands and control’. This parenting style is associated with immaturity in children, lack of impulse control and self-reliance, and a lack of social responsibility and independence (Starr, 2011).

The type of parenting style used by parents may be determined by the parent’s own cultural heritage (Chang, 2007). For example, the majority of studies on Asian parenting consistently show that Asian parents employ a more authoritarian style of parenting compared to Westerners (Chao, 1995; Gorman, 1998; Khoo-Lattimore et al., 2015). For Asians, parental obedience and some aspects of strictness may be equated with parental concern, caring, and involvement (Sorkhabi, 2005). Historically, Iran has been a patriarchal society (Fathi, 1985) and strongly emphasises highly authoritarian parenting, respect for elders, and unconditional loyalty to family over personal needs, as well as deference to parental authority (Sharifzadeh, 1998). Touba (1979) concluded that the dominant parenting style in Iran was probably authoritarian. However, in recent decades, particularly because of considerable cultural and political reforms, Iranians have been more willing to accept a more democratic approach to parenting (Alizadeh and Yari, 2006). Most recent studies have found authoritativeness to be the dominant parenting style in Iran (Alami et al., 2014; Derakhshanpour et al., 2016; Shavanddasht and Schänzel, 2017), indicating a significant change in how children are being raised there.

SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008) uses the concept of innate, universal, psychological needs to understand human motivation. All human beings have the fundamental need to feel related, competent, and autonomous in order to develop and function optimally (Deci and Ryan, 2000). The paramount importance given to the need for autonomy is the core feature of SDT (Joussemet et al., 2008). ‘Autonomy’ refers to the need to feel that one’s behaviour and resulting outcomes are self-determined, or self-caused, as opposed to being influenced or controlled by outside forces. ‘Competence’ refers to the need to feel effective and capable of performing tasks at varying levels of difficulty. ‘Relatedness’ refers to the need to feel connected to, supported by, or cared for by other people (Chang et al., 2015). These distinctive needs are enhanced and developed by tourists when they engage in interesting activities (Allan, 2012). Allan (2012) further indicated that intrinsically motivated people should gain satisfaction from autonomy and competence needs.

An SDT perspective on parenting provides a comprehensive account of the dynamics and mechanisms through which parenting impacts the psychosocial development of children (Skinner et al., 2005). Adolescence is a critical phase of life. Achieving independence and autonomy, setting personal goals and making plans, and acquiring values and ethics are developmental tasks that all adolescents have to realise (Hui and Tsang, 2012). Being self-determined is a developmental task that all young people have to confront and is pertinent to their whole-person development (Hui and Tsang, 2012). During adolescence, parents can create an environment that meets adolescents’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness by providing autonomy support, structure, and involvement, respectively (Grolnick, 2003; Grolnick and Pomerantz, 2009). Parents are autonomy supportive when they openly discuss rules and disagreements with adolescents, provide choices for how (but not whether) adolescents can follow rules, and acknowledge their child’s perspective (Farkas and Grolnick, 2010; Grolnick, 2003). Studies showed that perceived autonomy support from both mothers and fathers was significantly and positively associated with children’s own feelings of competence and autonomy (Joussemet et al., 2008). As a result, authoritative parenting is often found to be associated with the best child-development outcomes (e.g. Baumrind, 1978; Maccoby and Martin, 1983). Tong (2015) states that the adolescent children of authoritative parents learn how to competently negotiate and engage in discussions. These adolescents understand that their opinions are valued and as a result are more likely to be socially competent, responsible, and autonomous.

Mood

Moods occur when the cognitive system is maintained in an emotion mode for a period of time (Bagozzi et al., 1999). In tourism, the word ‘mood’ is used to refer to how tourists feel during their holidays (Nawijn, 2010). In this study, mood has been defined as a ‘mild, transient, and generalised affective state’ in accordance with most commonly used definitions in the marketing literature (Sirakaya et al., 2004: 520). Researchers suggest that mood can influence the consumption process (Chartrand et al., 2006; de Rojas and Camarero, 2008; Huang et al., 2012). As an example, people who are in a good mood evaluate stimuli more positively than do those in a bad or neutral mood. Moods do not interrupt ongoing thought processes and behaviours, but they do colour our day-to-day experiences (Luong, 2005). According to Huang et al. (2012), some studies have recognised that mood during the acquisition and consumption of the product or service can also have a significant influence on satisfaction judgments (Chartrand et al., 2006; Nawijn, 2010). Therefore, lower levels of satisfaction can be related to bad moods (Luong, 2005). Tourists with lower mood evaluations tended to have lower levels of satisfaction with tourism services. To avoid a biased evaluation such as this, the researcher must try to account for or adjust for the effect of mood when reporting customer satisfaction scores (Nawijn, 2010). In this study, adolescents were chosen as the target population since, firstly, they as tourism consumers are affected by their mood, generally due to being interested or uninterested in a chosen destination. In fact, parents sometimes force children to be with their family during holidays, requiring them to travel as part of a family unit, possibly even against their own will (Poria and Timothy, 2014). Secondly, tourism researchers rarely give voice to adolescents and previous tourism studies have paid little attention to investigating the effects of mood on young people.

Conceptual framework

The conceptual model of this research is illustrated in Figure 1. Each component of the model is informed by the literature review. According to the conceptual model, perceived parenting style breaks down into three components including authoritative, permissive, and authoritarian. Mood as the next variable has two components namely positive (vigour, calmness, and happiness) and negative (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension). Finally, autonomy, competence and relatedness make up components of adolescent tourism needs satisfaction. Subsequently, the model examines how perceived parenting style and mood affect adolescent tourism needs satisfaction. The theoretical underpinning of this model is further discussed in the Method section.

Study area

The Ali Sadr Cave is located about 100 kilometres north of Hamadan in western Iran. As one of the biggest and most remarkable water caves in the world, it is one of the most famous tourist attractions in Iran, attracting thousands of tourists every year (Karimi, 2015). Ali Sadr Cave is especially popular among families. A study by Shavanddasht et al. (2017) showed 73.2% of the cave visitors travelled with their family into this place. The cave walls can extend up to 40 metres high, and the cave contains several large, deep lakes. The cave has a river flowing through it and most travel through the cave system happens by pedal boat. ‘The cave is 2.5 km long, with the depth of water reaching 8 m in some parts. The lake water is pellucid and fresh, and the cave contains many caveroneous phenomena including a range of colourful stalactites’ (Dowling and Newsome, 2006: 88). The presence of nearby accommodation adds to this established geotourism destination, which is a major natural attraction. Cave tourism is one genre of geotourism (Dowling and Newsome, 2006).

Method

Participants and procedure

The target population of this study was adolescents visiting the Ali Sadr cave on weekdays during the period surveyed, in November 2016. According to Kozak and Decrop (2009), quantitative methods have been intensively used in consumer studies in the tourism literature, including with young people. Using a survey method provides adolescents with autonomy in answering the questions, which differs from younger age groups where qualitative methods are deemed more appropriate (Carr, 2011; Khoo-Lattimore, 2015). Based on the research questions and rational of the study, a survey method was deemed most appropriate. Using a convenience sampling technique, a targeted sample of 354 visitors was chosen. It should be noted that all parents gave permission for their children’s participation in the study.

Of these respondents, 181 (51.1%) were male and the remaining 173 (48.8%) were female, ranging in age from 11 to 18 years (see Table 1). As Table 1 shows, most adolescents were 18 years old and least were 16 years old, but, overall, the age distribution was even. The table also shows that 91.2% of respondents lived with their mother and father, while the remaining (8.75%) were being raised by a single parent.

Table 1.

Age and gender of the participants (total N = 354).

Variable	N	%
Gender
Male	181	51.1
Female	173	48.8
Age (years)
11	45	12.7
12	43	12.1
13	41	11.5
14	48	13.5
15	50	14.1
16	32	9.0
17	37	10.4
18	58	16.3
Parental status
One-parent home	31	8.8
Two-parent home	323	91.2

The questionnaires were completed outside the cave by the young people immediately after they had finished their visit and without the presence of their parents. The duration of each adolescent’s participation was approximately 10–20 minutes. Pretesting was conducted on a sample of 30 adolescents, the results of which were not included in the study.

Measures

The adolescents self-reported their demographic data (age, one- or two-parent family, and gender). In addition, they completed a perceived parenting styles measure (Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ); Buri, 1991), a measure of mood states (Mood Scale; Lane and Jarrett, 2005), and basic needs satisfaction scale (Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction (BPNS); Allan, 2012).

The PAQ is a 30-item measure divided into three categories – 10 pertaining to permissive parenting, 10 pertaining to authoritarian parenting, and 10 pertaining to authoritative parenting. Every participant filled in two questionnaires measuring these three parenting styles separately for fathers and mothers to account for potential gender differences. The participants were asked to reflect on their experiences with their parents since childhood and complete the PAQ based on these experiences. The measure was based on a five-point Likert scale with anchors ranging from 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree’. The Cronbach’s alpha for scores for the present sample scale was 0.78.

The Mood Scale is a 16-item measure of the mood states of individuals across eight domains including Anger, Confusion, Depression, Fatigue, Tension, Vigour, Calmness, and Happiness.

Anger items include ‘Bad-tempered’ and ‘Angry’;

Confusion items include ‘Mixed-up’ and ‘Uncertain’;

Depression items include ‘Depressed’ and ‘Downhearted’;

Fatigue items include ‘Worn out’ and ‘Tired’;

Tension items include ‘Anxious’ and ‘Panicky’;

Vigour items include ‘Alert’ and ‘Energetic’;

Calmness items include ‘Calm’ and ‘Relaxed’;

Happiness items include ‘Cheerful’ and ‘Happy’.

In this study, Anger, Confusion, Depression, Fatigue, and Tension were considered as negative moods and Vigour, Calmness, and Happiness were in a positive mood category. Again, participants responded by choosing from a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree’). In the present sample, scores from the positive mood subscale achieved a Cronbach’s alpha score of 0.74, while those from the negative mood subscale achieved an alpha score of 0.65.

The BPNS scale assesses the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs namely competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The scale is made up of 10 items. It is scored on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = ‘strongly disagree’ to 5 = ‘strongly agree’). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was obtained at 0.68, 0.82, and 0.76, respectively, for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which indicated appropriate tool reliability. Hence, the Cronbach’s alpha score for this scale in the present sample was 0.75.

Data analysis

The data were analysed using SPSS version 22. Descriptive statistics were examined to allow for the appropriate interpretations of the distribution and analyses (see Table 2 for descriptive statistics). In terms of inferential statistics, linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the relations between study variables. Pearson’s correlations were conducted to determine the relationships among parenting styles, adolescents’ satisfaction, and their mood states (see Table 3 for correlations between the major study variables). Independent variables of the study were authoritative parenting style, authoritarian parenting style, permissive parenting style, and mood states. Dependent variables of the study were tourist satisfaction subscales including autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Table 2.

Mean Likert scores (1 = ‘strongly disagree’, 5 = ‘strongly agree’) of the major variables (ordered from highest to lowest) with standard deviations (SD).

Variable	Mean	SD
Relatedness	3.63	.62
Competence	3.58	.91
Autonomy	3.52	.67
Authoritative parents	3.36	.81
Positive mood	3.31	.67
Authoritarian parents	2.84	.76
Permissive parents	2.56	.97
Negative mood	2.44	.61

Table 3.

Pearson’s correlations (r) between basic needs satisfaction, mood, and perceived parenting style.

Basic need	Perceived parenting style			Mood
Basic need	Authoritative	Permissive	Authoritarian	Positive	Negative
Autonomy	.573**	.297**	−.653**	.428**	−.452**
Competence	.668**	−.110	−.460**	.229**	−.542**
Relatedness	.483**	.233**	−.627**	.457**	−.439**

**p < 0.01.

Findings

Description of the research variables

The research variables, including the three demographic variables of the respondents, are described with percentages (for the respondents’ demographic variables) and means and standard deviations (for other research variables). The data analysis results that describe these variables are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Table 2 shows the mean Likert score and standard deviation for each major variable in this study. In terms of parenting styles, the parenting style of a mother and a father from the same family were very similar, and therefore, those two scores were added and divided by two to get a mean perceived parenting score for that family.

For perceived parenting styles, children perceived the parent’s influence on them as more authoritative (M = 3.36, SD = 0.81) than authoritarian (M = 2.84, SD = 0.76) or permissive (M = 2.56, SD = 0.97).

Relationships between perceived parenting styles and different motivations

Pearson’s bivariate correlations between mood states including positive mood and negative mood, and the three kinds of parenting style – authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive – and also the satisfaction of the basic needs – autonomy, competence, and relatedness – were conducted.

The correlation matrix in Table 3 shows several pairs of significantly correlated variables. The strongest correlation was between authoritative parenting style and competence (r = 0.668**), whereas the lowest correlation was between positive mood and competence responses (r = .229**). Table 3 illustrates that there were positive correlations among authoritative parenting style as an independent variable and all dependent variables, namely autonomy (r = .573^**, p < 0.01), competence (r = .668^**, p < 0.01), and also relatedness (r = .483^**, p <0.01), with correlations described as moderate, strong, and moderate, respectively, whereas it shows all of these dependent variables were significantly and negatively related to authoritarianism. There were two strong (r = −.653^**, p < 0.01), (r = −.627^**, p <0.01) and one moderate (r = −460^**, p < 0.01) correlations between them. The negative mood had the same conditions. All of the basic needs show moderate negative correlations with this independent variable including autonomy (r = −.452^**, p < 0.01), competence (r = −.542^**, p <0.01), and relatedness (r = −.439^**, p <0.01). The positive mood had moderate positive correlations with autonomy (r = .428^**, p < 0.01) and relatedness (r = .457^**, p < 0.01) and a weak positive correlation with competence (r = .229^**, p < 0.01). Finally, autonomy (r = .297^**, p <0.01) and relatedness (r =.233^**, p < 0.01) were significantly and positively related to permissiveness.

Moreover, a series of linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between mentioned variables (Table 4). According to Table 4, in relation to autonomy, the results of the regression analysis indicated that authoritative parenting style (βσ = .320, p<.001), permissive parenting style (βσ = .116, p<.001), and positive mood (βσ = .174, p<.001) were significant predictors of autonomy. The overall model explained 47% of variance in autonomy, which was revealed to be statistically significant, F = 26.358, p < .001. The results of examination of beta coefficients indicated that authoritative parenting style (βσ = .446, p<.001) and positive mood (βσ =. 131, p<.001) were positive predictors for competence. The overall model explained 48% of variance in competence, which was revealed to be statistically significant, F = 27.999, p<.001; whilst authoritativeness (βσ = .236, p<.001), permissiveness (βσ = .164, p<.001), and positive mood (βσ = .128, p<.001) were significant predictors for relatedness. In terms of the relatedness, the overall model explained 41% of the variance in this dependent variable, which was revealed to be statistically significant, F= 21.177, p< .001.

Table 4.

Results of the regression analyses between basic needs satisfaction, moods, and perceived parenting styles (N = 354).

Independent variable	Autonomy			Competence			Relatedness
Independent variable	Bu	S.E.	βσ	Bu	S.E.	βσ	Bu	S.E.	βσ
Authoritative	.265	.118	.320	.502	.118	.446	.283	.125	.236
Permissive	.102	.114	.116	−.240	.100	−.200	.152	.072	.164
Authoritarian	−.236	.094	−.343	−.241	.112	−.257	−.340	.081	−.534
Positive mood	.173	.075	.174	.178	.100	.131	.118	.072	.128
Negative mood	−.160	.097	−.153	−.215	.130	−.144	−.150	.094	−.149
F-statistic	26.358			27.999			21.177
p-value	.000			.000			.000
R	.686			.697			.646
R²	.471			.486			.417
Adj. R²	.453			.469			.397
Durbin–Watson	2.471			1.677			1.758

Bu: unstandardised beta coefficient; S.E.: standard error of beta; βσ: standardised beta coefficient.

Discussion

This study investigated how perceived parenting style and mood affect adolescents’ needs satisfaction in a tourism context in Iran. The investigation of the relationships between these variables was twofold. First, Pearson’s bivariate correlations between the needs satisfaction explicated above (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) with mood states (positive and negative) and perceived parental style were calculated to check the correlations between these constructs. Second, a series of linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between all these variables. The types of parental styles and mood states served as independent variables, whereas autonomy, competence, and relatedness were entered as dependent variables. According to the results, authoritativeness was the dominant parenting style perceived by the adolescents. The result is in line with other studies which found authoritativeness as the dominant parenting style in Iran (Alami et al., 2014; Derakhshanpour et al., 2016; Shavanddasht and Schänzel, 2017). Moreover, there was little gender difference in parental styles between fathers and mothers in this study.

Additionally, most of the adolescents were in a positive mood (M = 3.31, SD = 0.67) rather than a negative mood (M = 2.44, SD = 0.61) (Table 2). The tourism experience being researched resulted in high levels of satisfaction, since all mean Likert scores for the satisfaction items were above 3.5 (Table 2). Of the three basic needs satisfaction, relatedness had the highest mean score (M = 3.63, SD = 0.62), followed by competence (M = 3.58, SD = 0.91) and then autonomy (M = 3.52, SD = 0.67).

In the relationship between perceived parenting style, mood state and basic needs satisfaction, this study firstly found a significant and negative relationship between authoritarianism, negative mood and all three needs satisfactions. Based on the literature, feeling autonomous refers to having a sense of choice. Feeling competent corresponds to having a sense of mastery over one’s capacity to act in the environment. Relatedness refers to feelings of closeness and connectedness to significant others (Veronneau et al., 2005). Chan and Chan (2005) described the authoritarian parenting style as confining and punishing. Parents using this parenting style enforce strict boundaries and restraints on adolescents and allow only a minute amount of compromise (Santrock, 2004). In this way, parents actively thwart or block the satisfaction of psychological needs (Cordeiro et al., 2015); as Gram (2007) stated, if the child does not wish to go to a tourism site, the likelihood of getting satisfied children is poor. Children and adolescents are likely to have less control over their activity engagement than adults. Thus, weak effects for pleasant activities may be attributable to such activities being chosen by others versus self-selected and are, hence, less rewarding (Weinstein and Mermelstein, 2007). As Carr (2011) noted, the potential for intra-familial conflict and dissatisfaction with the holiday experience is potentially heightened if the desires of each member of the family are not taken into account. Ignoring the role of adolescents in tourism decision-making process is exactly what authoritarian parents do, since they are in the dominant position and assume that their children will submit to whatever choices they make, including their (parents’) choice of holiday destination.

Past studies show there is a direct and negative relationship between negative mood and satisfaction (Huang et al., 2012; de Rojas and Camarero, 2008), which is consistent with the result of this study. Nawijn (2010) claimed that tourists with lower mood evaluations tended to have lower levels of satisfaction with tourism services, and Sirakaya et al. (2004) stated that lower levels of satisfaction are related to bad (lower) mood. However, Sirakaya et al. (2004) did not examine the relationship between parental style and mood states, but, as previous studies noted, children’s mood states can be negatively affected by excessive parental control (Soenens et al., 2008; Nanda et al., 2012). Moreover, Reis et al. (2000) indicated that activities that detract from autonomy would have negative effects on mood.

Secondly, there was a significant and positive relationship between authoritativeness and positive mood with the satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In fact, parents using authoritative techniques allow compromise and are noted as being the most flexible in their regulation of behaviours. Regulation of behaviours is conducted through explanation rather than enforcing stern punishment (Chan and Chan, 2005). Li et al. (2017) found that the involvement of children in the decision-making process could improve family’s holiday satisfaction. Connell (2005) found that parents in contemporary society are providing more opportunities for their children to participate in family decision-making, and Decrop (2005) also stated they take their children into consideration when choosing holiday activities. This so-called ‘liberal parental style’ is further explained by Carr (2011), who claims that children are offered more money and freedom in tourism-consuming processes because of their parents’ guilt over their frequent absences from their children’s daily life. Consequently, children are more willing to express their desires and participate in the decision-making process (Gram, 2007). Therefore, children nowadays have a more observable influence on family holidays than ever before (Li et al., 2017) and, consequently, have higher self-esteem, social competence, autonomy, and are better behaved (Spera, 2005; Tong, 2015). As mentioned before, studies in marketing and tourism (e.g. Huang et al., 2012; Nawijn, 2010; de Rojas and Camarero, 2008; Weinstein and Mermelstein, 2007) confirm a significant relationship between mood and satisfaction. In fact, customers provide more favourable evaluations of services, places, objects, or ideas while in positive mood states (Sirakaya et al., 2004). Accordingly, tourists who are in a good mood and feel positive emotions are more satisfied with their tourism experience.

In terms of permissiveness, there was a positive and significant relationship between this parental style and the satisfaction of needs for autonomy and relatedness. In fact, parents who use the permissive parenting style require nothing; they completely accept and submit to their adolescents (Santrock, 2004). These parents are ready to sacrifice their holiday time for their children. Besides the external pressure on children to request/demand more, and more actively, of their parents, and on parents to submit to this (Carr, 2011), the guilt associated with a perception by parents that they are not spending sufficient time with their children is leading to the latter having more say in family holiday decisions (Wang et al., 2004). In addition, the direct active influence of children in the family holiday decision-making process increases significantly as they enter adolescence. Hence, permissiveness may fulfil the autonomy and relatedness needs of adolescents in a tourism destination.

The other need of SDT is competence. Competence refers to the qualification, capability, and efficiency of an individual when (s)he performs an action (Allan, 2012). When the need for competence is thwarted, people feel incapable and inferior (de Haan et al., 2013). Interestingly, in the present study, competence was significantly and negatively related to permissiveness. Grolnick et al. (2000) found that higher levels of parental involvement were related to higher child competence, whereas parents who use the permissive parenting style establish miniscule amounts of control and are unavailable to guide their children through decision-making processes (Chan and Chan, 2005). Finally, the results of the regression analysis revealed that authoritative parenting style, permissive parenting style, and positive mood were significant predictors for autonomy and relatedness. The study further revealed that competence in adolescents was significantly predicted by the authoritative parenting style and positive mood.

Conclusions

Generally, many tourism and hospitality businesses track the satisfaction of their customers via surveys. By identifying the significant dimensions of tourist satisfaction, tourism organisations and travel researchers can sensitively analyse the causes of general satisfaction/dissatisfaction and rectify them accordingly (Shavanddasht et al., 2017). The tourism industry has increasingly recognised the value of children, since children nowadays have undeniable influence on family holidays compared to previous times. The level of children’s influence on the family holiday is believed to increase with increasing age. In this way, adolescents have a more important role in family holiday decisions when compared with younger children.

While surveys are useful, there are factors that can interfere with consumers’ evaluations of services by biasing or hiding true satisfaction scores. For example, the mood or state of being of the consumer during the evaluation might contribute to erroneous measures of their satisfaction levels (Sirakaya, 2003). In this study, basic needs satisfaction has been found to be positively associated with positive and pleasant mood, while dissatisfaction was related to negative and unpleasant mood. Moreover, based on results, perceived parental style could be another factor affecting tourist satisfaction, particularly for adolescents. According to the research findings, it can be concluded that authoritativeness in parental style has significant and positive influences on children’s satisfaction. Children of authoritative parents showed high levels of satisfaction gained from tourist experiences in all of the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, whereas adolescents with authoritarian parents expressed lower levels of satisfaction and even dissatisfaction in their tourism experiences. In terms of permissiveness, there was a positive and significant relationship between this parental style and the satisfaction of autonomy and relatedness needs. Overall, authoritative parenting adopting a warm but firm approach to parenting allows adolescents to be independent within developmentally appropriate parental limits and boundaries. Hence, authoritativeness could help families to have a more satisfactory holiday experience where all of the family members’ desires and needs are met and intra-family conflict is consequently reduced, which could further add to the satisfaction of the family members with their holiday experiences.

In conclusion, the research reported here has both theoretical and pragmatic implications. Accounting for the influence of mood and perceived parental style on adolescents’ satisfaction ratings provides information useful for both academic researchers and marketers. Ignoring the roles of perceived parenting style and mood states as effective factors on tourism satisfaction may give a false sense of security to tourism companies, especially when satisfaction scores are either high or low. Studying the effect of these factors in a tourism context also enhances the general consumer behaviour literature and lays the foundations for further investigations in different tourism settings where customer evaluations of tourism products play an important role in predicting success or failure (Sirakaya et al., 2004). The findings have a practical use in assessing the basic needs of tourists who are not sufficiently satisfied with their experiences. With better information, strategies can be developed to help these tourists overcome their deficits in needs satisfaction. In this study, adolescents were chosen as the target population since adolescence is a critical phase of life during which young people face physical, psychological, intellectual, and emotional concerns and challenges, search for self-identity, explore new roles and deal with the transition to secondary schools and, later, from school to work and adulthood. Being self-determined is a developmental task that all young people have to confront and is pertinent to their whole-person development (Hui and Tsang, 2012).

In summary, although the findings of this study are by no means conclusive, they do strongly suggest that mood states and adolescents’ perception of parenting styles have an effect on how a tourism product will be evaluated by young people as well as their level of satisfaction at the end of their visit. Tourism and hospitality researchers may incorporate affective factors, such as mood and the way in which young consumers perceive they have been parented, into decision-making and customer satisfaction studies. Logically, the results obtained are not free of limitations, as they were taken from a study in a specific geographical area at a specific time of year. It is recommended that further research be undertaken in exploring the relationships among these variables in different tourism settings, countries, samples, and times of the year in order to test and further generalise the findings. However, this study is a first to address the link between parental styles, mood states, and needs satisfaction from the perspective of adolescents within a tourism context, thus furthering our understandings of the influences on young people’s behaviour.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Mercede Shavanddasht is a graduated top student at Tourism Planning from Allameh Tabataba’i University, the largest specialized public university in humanities and social sciences in Iran. Her principal research interests lie in the field of geotourism, geotourists studies, tourism and hospitality marketing, tourism behavior, families, children and adolescents in tourism and tourism motivation theories. She has published some articles in various international academic journals in different countries including USA, England, Iran, and Romania.

Heike Schänzel, PhD, leads the postgraduate programme in the Tourism Department and is a senior lecturer at Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. Her doctoral thesis examined family holiday experiences for the whole family group from a New Zealand perspective from which she has published extensively in international journals and books. She is passionate about better understanding family fun (along with the avoidance of conflict) as well as the facilitation of sociality within the context of tourism and hospitality. Her research interests include families and children in tourism, tourist experiences, sociality in tourism, innovative and qualitative research methodologies, and critical theory development in tourism and hospitality.

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