Adventure tourists' electronic word-of-mouth (e-WOM) intention: The effect of water-based adventure experience,grandiose narcissism,and self-presentation

Abstract

This study aims to empirically examine the effect of tourists’ grandiose narcissism and adventure experiences on their self-presentation and electronic word-of-mouth communication (e-WOM) intention in a water-based adventure tourism setting. Data were collected through a personal-administered survey of 357 tourists who had participated in various water-based adventure activities offered at Kota Kinabalu coastal areas in Sabah, Malaysia. A partial least-square -based structural equation modeling was applied to analyze the data. The results signify that tourists’ water-based adventure experiences had a direct effect on their positive self-presentation and e-WOM intention while tourist grandiose narcissism had an indirect mediating effect on e-WOM intention through positive self-presentation. The findings provide theoretical knowledge in the literature as well as practical implications for tourism managers and practitioners, particularly in water-based adventure tourism settings.

Keywords

Adventure experience grandiose narcissism self-presentation electronic word-of-mouth communication intention water-based adventure tourism

Introduction

In today’s era of social media, the sharing of travel experiences with friends, family, as well as larger anonymous audiences from all over the world has become ubiquitous (Liu et al., 2018). Travelers now use social networking sites (SNSs) for more than simply having fun and maintaining social connections; rather, they use it for multiple purposes, such as searching for travel-related information, looking for travel companions, and sharing travel experiences, tips, and suggestions (Kim and Tussyadiah, 2013; Wang et al., 2002). Thus, sharing travel-related experiences, information, photos, and videos with friends, family, and followers via SNSs as a form of electronic word-of-mouth communication (e-WOM)—any positive or negative statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about a product or company which is spread over the internet (Cheung and Thadani, 2010)—itself, on the one hand, plays a substantial role in shaping tourists’ awareness, expectations, attitudes, and behavior (Liu et al., 2018; Narangajavana Kaosiri et al., 2019). On the other hand, sharing interesting travel experiences and information on social media from a source with experience can aid potential travelers’ decision-making (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2010).

In recent years, due to the widespread use of SNSs by both the current and potential travel decision-makers, the scope of traditional word-of-mouth (WOM) has been enhanced by e-WOM; and the concept of e-WOM has received significant attention from academics and practitioners in the tourism industry (Brown et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2015; Litvin et al., 2008). Researchers argue that consumers are more likely to discuss their consumption experiences on SNSs and share it with others as a form of e-WOM if they perceive the experience to be personally significant (Kim et al., 2015). A review of extant literature in tourism (e.g., Sangpikul, 2018; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016) has revealed that tourists’ experience with various tourism attractions, activities, and processes has a direct influence on their satisfaction and behavioral intention—repeat visit and WOM. Sangpikul (2018) has argued that travelers’ experiences with beach attractions, services, and facilities positively influence their satisfaction and loyalty. Likewise, tourists’ experiences with various sea-based adventure activities have a significant impact on their satisfaction, re-experience, and WOM intentions (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). The findings of these studies imply that tourists’ adventure experiences are a complex phenomenon (Kane and Zink, 2004; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016), and water-based adventure activities such as surfing, kite-boarding, kayaking, and scuba-diving are thrilling, exciting, challenging, and even risky (Beckman et al., 2017; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016), which always provide unforgettable, memorable experiences (Imboden, 2012). Moreover, tourists who have positive adventure experiences are likely to be more inclined to re-experience and share such experiences with others in their community using WOM (Park et al., 2016; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Therefore, the concept of a tourism experience and WOM has been noted as a pivotal correlation, and the traditional WOM is rapidly being replaced by e-WOM in the tourism industry (Brown et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2015). However, the lack of research knowledge of tourist experiences in water-based adventure tourism settings and their effect on tourist e-WOM intention is still evident in the tourism literature.

In addition, referring to self-presentation theory, customers who desire positive recognition, seek prestige, and a high place in society are willingly sharing their consumption experiences with others as a form of conspicuous self-presentation (Amatulli et al., 2015; Bian and Forsythe, 2012). Tourism literature postulates that tourists tend to express themselves by highlighting the favorable experiences to others in a selective manner (Kim and Tussyadiah, 2013). At this juncture, SNSs especially Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram provide a broader platform to publicize their travel-related experiences to present themselves as ideal people (Park et al., 2016), often involving self-presentation (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015) and generating e-WOM (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). Moreover, individuals who have narcissistic characteristics tend to be engaged in active self-presentation (Gnambs and Appel, 2018). Researchers argue that grandiose narcissists love to update their status through wall-posts and selective postings of attractive profile photos more frequently for self-presentation purposes than non-narcissists (Casale et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2018). Grandiose narcissists prefer taking pictures and selfies of exciting moments, experiences, and images and share these with others through SNSs (McCain et al., 2016; Wang, 2017; Weiser, 2015). By posting and sharing such experiences on SNSs, narcissistic travelers, on the one hand, extend their self-identity and self-presentation and, on the other hand, distribute marketing messages about the travel activities, experiences, and locations as a form of e-WOM (Fastoso et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018). From a marketing viewpoint, providing and circulating such messages on SNSs as e-WOM is considered a no-cost promotion that reduces marketing costs and contributes to the profitability of businesses (Kim et al., 2013).

As grandiose narcissism, self-presentation, and WOM relationships provide a more profound theoretical understanding about an individual’s experience in the social media era, narcissistic individuals are more likely to share their experiences on SNSs to satisfy self-enhancement needs (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008; Kim and Tussyadiah, 2013; McCain and Campbell, 2018). Therefore, from a tourism point of view, it can be said that grandiose narcissistic travelers are more inclined to project positive self-presentation, tend to share their interesting travel experiences on social media, and generate e-WOM to impress others. However, the effect of tourists’ grandiose narcissism and adventure experiences on their self-presentation and e-WOM intention in adventure tourism settings are yet to be examined in the literature. Taking the issues into account, the current study is aimed at empirically examining the effect of tourists’ grandiose narcissism and water-based adventure experiences on their self-presentation and e-WOM intention. Theoretically, the conceptual model of this study is largely guided by the theory of self-presentation (Goffman, 2002) and self-enhancement (Buffardi, 2011), that is, how an individual conveys information or images of him/herself to others to enhance their self-promotion via social media platforms (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008; Campbell and Miller, 2011). The findings of this study provide useful insights for water-based adventure tourism marketers in designing effective marketing promotions and contribute to enriching the existing body of knowledge in the beach tourism literature.

Literature review

Water-based adventure experiences and tourist self-presentation

In tourism contexts, travelers are more likely to share and publicize their travel experiences with significant others who were not with them, as well as with a larger anonymous audience (Kim et al., 2015). Publicizing their travel-related experiences in the form of opinions, comments, reviews, and recommendations often involves self-presentation (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015). Self-presentation is behavior that attempts to convey some information about oneself or some image of oneself to other people. It denotes a class of motivations in human behavior. These motivations are in part stable dispositions of individuals but they depend on situational factors to elicit them (Roy et al., 1978). Specifically, self-presentational motivations are activated by the evaluative presence of other people and by others’ knowledge of one’s behavior. In the tourism industry, adventure tourism activities offer exciting and thrilling experiences for tourists in outdoor environments (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Adventure tourists tend to be more about “doing” instead of “seeing,” which is typically performed in outdoor settings (Gardiner and Kwek, 2017). Most of these “doing” activities, especially in water settings such as surfing, kite-boarding, kayaking, and scuba-diving, are thrilling, exciting, and even challenging (Beckman et al., 2017). Therefore, participating in these activities is always considered a memorable experience (Imboden, 2012; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). The experimental dimensions of water-based adventure activities such as hedonism, escapism, socialization, and community attachment encourage tourists to show more self-presentation to their community (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Therefore, it can be inferred that favorable adventure experiences motivate tourists to be more self-representative to others. Thus, we propose the hypothesis:

Tourists’ positive experiences with water-based adventure activities will results in a strong, positive self-presentation to others.

Grandiose narcissism and self-presentation

Narcissism is defined as a dimensional personality trait that consists of a grandiose self-concept as well as behavior intended to maintain this self-concept in the face of reality (McCain and Campbell, 2018). There are two forms of narcissism—grandiose and vulnerable, which have been studied in the literature (Cain et al., 2008; McCain and Campbell, 2018). Grandiose narcissism is the extraverted, grandiose, and callous form of narcissism. It is an overt personality trait that involves an inflated sense of the self and self-importance (Fastoso et al., 2018; Gnambs and Appel, 2018). From a psychologically motivational perspective, a central psychological motivation of grandiose narcissists is their desire for attention; they love being among people, talking, and socialize (Holtzman et al., 2010). Grandiose narcissists crave attention, self-esteem, and central focus (Casale et al., 2016) and perceive themselves as successful, gifted, and remarkable (Gnambs and Appel, 2018). Narcissistic individuals have an inflated view of themselves, feel entitled to positive outcomes and rewards that exceed reasonable expectations, and seek out roles that provide power, influence, and the opportunity to have an audience for their actions (Jonason et al., 2012; Maynard et al., 2015). Individuals possessing a higher degree of grandiose narcissism tend to be engaged in active self-presentation (Gnambs and Appel, 2018), and SNSs, which give an autonomous space and allow them to present themselves in self-enhancing ways (Singh et al., 2018). SNSs, especially Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and other social networking sites, offer a broader platform for their users to reach a wider audience (Casale et al., 2016), as a means of positive self-presentation (Kim and Jang, 2018). People usually communicate and show off their achievements, skills, status, and happiness to impress others as a means of positive self-presentation (McCain and Campbell, 2018), which establishes their identities to distinguish them from others (Li and Ku, 2018). Social networking sites allow narcissists to behave in such a way that enhances their self-promotion and stimulates motivations for narcissism to gain admiration from others (Weiser, 2015), fuel inflated self-views (Halpern et al., 2016), and create positive self-presentation through posting updated statuses, wall-posts, and attractive profile photos from their daily lives (Singh et al., 2018). Indeed, grandiose narcissistic consumers are particularly prone to posting positive self-presentation on SNSs (Gnambs and Appel, 2018). In the tourism context, when grandiose narcissistic tourists participate in various adventure activities, they take selfies and photos and share them on SNSs to impress others as a form of self-presentation. Therefore, it can be argued that grandiose tourists’ adventure experiences reflect their psychological motivations for positive self-presentation on SNSs, and we propose the following hypothesis:

Tourists’ grandiose narcissism has a significant direct influence on their positive self-presentation on Social Networking Sites

Water-based adventure experiences and e-WOM intention

With the advent of advanced technologies, especially the smartphone and the high-speed internet, travelers now enjoy full freedom to share their traveling information, stories, and experiences (Kang and Schuett, 2013), uploading photos, audios, and videos (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010), and posting comments, reviews, and recommendations on SNSs as a form of e-WOM during and after a trip (Liu et al., 2018). Literature shows that consumers are more inclined to spread e-WOM if they perceive the consumption experience as significant (Kim et al., 2015). In tourism contexts, during the post-consumption stage, consumers evaluate the consumption experience and form the behavioral intention: re-experiencing, recommending, and WOM which are influenced by various experience dimensions (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). In addition, the socialization dimension of the experience proves to be a significant driver of the participants’ willingness to re-engage and recommend the experience to others (Lee and Hsu, 2013). The experience dimensions inherent with water-based adventure experiences such as hedonism and socialization are positive, while a feeling of flow was found to be negative with adventure tourists’ WOM intention (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Nowadays, the scope and application of conventional word-of-mouth (WOM) is being enhanced by e-WOM (Kim et al., 2015), and e-WOM is treated as a unique entity in presenting distinctive credibility to narrate memorable tourism experiences (Tham et al., 2013). Tourists can disseminate their travel experiences through selfie postings, instant chatting, and live video broadcasting (e-WOM) from their location, which is much faster than the traditional WOM. Therefore, it is logical for tourists who perceive their adventure positively to be more likely to spread positive e-WOM. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Tourists’ experiences with water-based adventure activities have a significant direct influence on their e-WOM intention.

Grandiose narcissism and e-WOM intention

Individuals pertaining to grandiose narcissistic characteristics go to a great deal of effort to appear special, important, and successful (Gnambs and Appel, 2018; Naderi, 2011) and are more likely to show the most consistent behavior with social media (Singh et al., 2018). According to the self-enhancement model (e.g., Buffardi, 2011), social media can be a useful platform for promoting and enhancing the self (Buffardi and Campbell, 2008), so narcissistic individuals will be drawn to social media to fulfill self-enhancement needs (McCain and Campbell, 2018). In recent years, sharing photos more frequently, rating selfie postings more favorably, and posting more selfies on SNSs have become an integral part of narcissists’ everyday lives (Gnambs and Appel, 2018; Kang et al., 2018), which provides an ideal space and opportunity for achieving narcissistic goals (Casale et al., 2016). The sharing of self-enhancing content, flattering pictures, boastful statuses on SNSs such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram can bring immediate feedback from millions of followers in the form of “likes” and comments. Researchers have argued that grandiose narcissists are more prone to update their status by sharing their experiences, liking, and disliking than non-narcissists, for attention-seeking, self-presentation, and exhibition purposes (Casale et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2018). The practice of taking photos and selfies of exciting experiences and sharing them with others is one of the popular SNSs activities among grandiose narcissists (McCain et al., 2016; Wang, 2017; Weiser, 2015). In the context of tourism, grandiose narcissistic travelers are more willing to post their travel-related experiences and opinions on social media via the posting of text comments, photographs, and videos (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Liu et al., 2018). By posting and sharing such experiences on SNSs as a form of e-WOM, they not only extend their self-identity and self-presentation but also transmit marketing messages about their travel experiences to impress and tempt others to enjoy the same experiences (Fastoso et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018). Here, grandiose narcissism, positive self-presentation, and social networking behavior are interwoven with each other (Gnambs and Appel, 2018). Therefore, this study posits the hypothesis:

Tourists’ grandiose narcissism has a significant direct influence on their e-WOM intention concerning adventure experiences.

Tourists’ self-presentation and e-WOM intention

People tend to be concerned with how others perceive them (Goffman, 2002) and showing favorable images, self-disclosure, and self-presentation to impress others are the key indicators of such behavior (Kim and Tussyadiah, 2013). Researchers have claimed that individuals’ self-disclosure and self-presentation are the important motivating factors of participating in various activities on SNSs (Kim and Tussyadiah, 2013; Park et al., 2016). If people perceive their purchasing behavior as a form of self-expression, they are more likely to create e-WOM to impress others (Kim et al., 2015). In the tourism context, adventure tourism is regarded as outdoor activities performed by tourists to enable them to experience challenges, personal enlightenment, and master their skills (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Tourists concerned with positive self-presentation are more inclined to participate and experience adventure activities because sharing their challenging experiences on SNSs can convey prestige and a high place in the social hierarchy to gain higher status (Amatulli et al., 2015; Bian and Forsythe, 2012). Moreover, narcissistic tourists are more willing to post their travel-related experiences and opinions via posting texts, comments, photographs, and videos as a means of active self-presentation on social media (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Liu et al., 2018). Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

Tourists’ self-presentation on SNSs significantly influences their e-WOM intention concerning adventure experiences.

Tourists’ positive self-presentation motive mediates the relationship between their water-based adventure experiences and e-WOM intention.

Tourists’ positive self-presentation motive mediates the relationship between their grandiose narcissism and e-WOM intention.

Methodology

Survey instruments

The current study is a survey-based quantitative study. To conduct the survey, a draft questionnaire was developed as a tool of data collection including the measure items adopted from prior studies. The draft questionnaire was first offered to academic experts. Then the pilot test was conducted to refine the measures further as they were being applied to different tourism and cultural contexts. Finally, a structured questionnaire was developed after revising some wording and items based on the pre-test and pilot test results. All measure items in the questionnaire were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (7 = strongly agree to 1 = mostly disagree).

Measures

As mentioned earlier, the measure items were adopted from prior studies. A total of 21 items under 4 constructs were included in the questionnaire. The construct, namely, water-based adventure experiences, contains seven items that were adapted from Ames et al. (2006) and Triantafillidou and Petala (2016). Similarly, six grandiose narcissism items were adopted from Jones and Paulhus (2014) and Ames et al. (2006), and five items representing the self-presentation motive came from Kim and Tussyadiah (2013) and Park et al. (2016). Finally, three modified items from Park et al. (2016) were used for measuring e-WOM intention.(Figures 1 and 2)

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework of the study.

Figure 2.

Structural model path coefficient.

Sample

The survey was carried out in the popular coastal-based tourist destinations at Kota Kinabalu. Kota Kinabalu is a coastal city, one of the major tourist attractions located at Sabah in Malaysia. It is the tourist hotspot of Sabah, playing a major role in enhancing the economy of Sabah, Malaysia. In 2018, Sabah received 3.879 million tourists, and tourism receipts were RM 8.34 billion (Vanar, 2019). Tourist arrivals increased by 5.3%, and tourism income grew by up to 6.6% in Sabah compared with 2017 (Vanar, 2019). Therefore, considering the representative role and significant economic contribution to Malaysian tourism, Kota Kinabalu was selected as a study area. The sample population was the tourists who had participated in various water-based adventure activities such as surfing, kite-boarding, kayaking, and scuba-diving offered at the sample area. A convenient sampling technique was used to collect data from 357 tourists, and a personal-administered questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data from them. An information sheet containing the objectives and a brief introduction to the study was given to each of the respondents before the commencement of the data collection. Finally, 348 questionnaires were duly completed and were posted on the computer for final analysis.

Respondents’ profile

The respondents’ demographic profile shows that out of 348 respondents, 270 (77.6%) were male and 78 (22.4%) were female. Most of the respondents (64.4%) were between 18 and 34, followed by 23% who were 35–49 years old. However, the percentage of older people’s participation was surprisingly zero. About 56% of participants were graduates (bachelor, master’s, and others), while 40% had up to college-level education. Around 47% of the respondents were from the service sectors, followed by students (27.3%), and the remaining were other professionals. Most of the respondents (52%) traveled with their family members, 29.6% traveled with friends and relatives, and 15% traveled with others such as travel groups and business partners, and very few (2.9%) traveled by themselves.

Data analysis results

Partial least-square–based structural equation modeling partial least-square–structural equation modeling(PLS–SEM) with SmartPLS software version 3.2 was used to analyze the data. Partial least-square-based SEM is a stronger and more robust statistical technique of structural model estimation that works with high-complexity models and non-normal data distributions (Henseler et al., 2015). Partial least-square–structural equation modeling contains (i) a measurement model and (ii) a structural model.

Assessment of measurement model

Being a reflective measurement model, the first criterion of model assessment was to examine the reliability and validity of measures (Hair et al., 2017). Table 1 shows that the Cronbach’s alpha (α) values of all latent constructs are above the threshold of 0.70 and composite reliability (CR) values are within the range of <0.95, which means that all latent constructs are reliable (Hair et al., 2017). In addition, all indicator loadings are higher than the threshold value of 0.70 (Henseler et al., 2009), and the AVE value of each construct exceeds the cut-off value of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2017), indicating the sufficient convergent validity for used indicators and latent constructs.

Table 1.

Results of measurement model.

Constructs/items	Convergent validity		Construct reliability
Constructs/items	Loadings	AVE^a	α ^a	CR^a
WAE
The experience was very exciting for me	0.750	0.643	0.889	0.915
The experience was extremely challenging for me	0.862
The experience was highly educational for me	0.718
I felt cheerful during the experience	0.810
I felt that I was living in a different time and place	0.828
I felt that I was in a different world	0.836
I was absorbed in the experience	0.799
GN
I think I am special because everyone keeps telling me so	0.805	0.691	0.887	0.918
I like to show off if I get the chance	0.873
I believe I am an extraordinary person	0.890
I insist on getting the respect I deserve	0.802
I like to be the center of attention	0.780
I think everybody likes to hear my stories	0.810
SP
I like to present my image on SNSs	0.902	0.758	0.919	0.940
I post photos that show the happy side of my travel experience	0.927
I post photos on SNSs in which I look good on my travel	0.918
I post photos that show the true side of my travel on SNSs	0.826
I avoid writing about negative things that happen to me	0.771
E-word-of-mouth (e-WOM) intention
I am willing to add my adventure information on SNSs	0.842	0.732	0.818	0.891
I am willing to post my adventure experience on SNSs	0.870
I would like to share my adventure experience with other SNSs members	0.853

SNS: social networking site; e-WOM: electronic word-of-mouth communication; WAE: water-based adventure experience; GN: grandiose narcissism; SP: self-presentation.

^aAVE: average variance extracted; Cronbach’s alpha (α); composite reliability (CR).

Heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio results for discriminant validity are reported in Table 2. To measure discriminant validity, researchers previously used the Fornell–Larcker criterion (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The Fornell–Larcker criterion performs very poorly, especially when indicator loadings of the constructs under consideration differ only slightly (e.g., all indicator loadings vary between 0.60 and 0.80). However, due to criticism of the Fornell–Larcker criterion, recent research recommends applying the HTMT criterion—the ratio of the between-trait correlations to the within-trait correlations (Hasan et al., 2020; Hair et al., 2017; Henseler et al., 2015; Ramayah, et al., 2018).

Table 2.

Results of heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio.

Constructs	(1)	(2)	(3)
Water-based adventure experience (1)
Grandiose narcissism (2)	0.765
Self-representation (3)	0.632	0.536
Electronic word-of-mouth intention (4)	0.726	0.540	0.824

The PLS algorithm results reported that all HTMT values of latent constructs (Table 2) are lower than the upper threshold of 0.90 (Henseler et al., 2015). This means that there are no discriminant validity problems among the constructs in terms of the HTMT criterion.

Evaluation of structural model

In PLS–SEM, the strength of path coefficients, R² values (prediction power), f² (the effect size), and Q² (the model’s predictive relevance) is the criteria of structural model evaluation (Hair et al., 2017). Table 3 reports the PLS bootstrapping results of path coefficient estimation in which it is seen that tourists’ water-based adventure experiences significantly influence their positive self-presentation motive (β = 0.460; p = 0.000). In addition, tourists’ water-based adventure experiences also have a significant positive influence on their intention to share e-WOM on SNSs (β = 0.270; p = 0.000). The result for travelers with grandiose narcissistic characteristics was found to be significant in terms of predicting their positive self-presentation (β = 0.175; p = 0.031), while no such significance was found in terms of travelers e-WOM share intention (β = 0.049; p = 0.375). Finally, adventure tourists’ positive self-presentation motive was found to have a significant influence on their intention to share e-WOM on SNSs—Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram (β = 0.680; p = 0.000).

Table 3.

Hypotheses and direct path coefficient results.

Hypothesis	Direct path	Std. β value	Std. error	BCLL*	BCUL*	p-value	Decision
H 1	Water-based adventure experience → self-presentation	0.460	0.074	0.304	0.590	0.000	Supported
H 2	Grandiose narcissism → self-presentation	0.175	0.081	0.016	0.333	0.031	Supported
H 3	Water-based adventure experience → e-WOM intention	0.270	0.052	0.167	0.370	0.000	Supported
H 4	Grandiose narcissism → e-WOM intention	0.049	0.056	0.152	0.064	0.375	Not supported
H 5	Self-presentation → e-WOM intention	0.680	0.044	0.586	0.760	0.000	Supported

e-WOM: electronic word-of-mouth communication.

Confidence intervals: *BCLL: bias corrected lower level; *BCUL: bias corrected upper level.

Indirect mediating effect

Henseler et al. (2009) argue that the evaluation of a structural model requires assessing both the direct and indirect relationships between exogenous and endogenous variables. Recent research recommends Preacher and Hayes’ (2008) method to examine the indirect mediating relationship between predictor and outcome variables. In this method, two approaches—segmentation and transmittal—can interchangeably be used to assess indirect relationships for mediation (Rungtusanatham et al., 2014). In this study, a transmittal approach was used to examine the indirect mediating effect, in which only a single path for the indirect effect of X on Y through mediator (M) was examined.

Table 4 reported that travelers’ water-based adventure experiences had a significant indirect influence on their e-WOM intention through a positive self-presentation motive (β = 0.312; t = 5.557). Similarly, travelers’ grandiose narcissism also indirectly influenced their e-WOM intention through a self-presentation motive (β = 0.111; t = 2.192). These findings justify the role of positive self-presentation as a mediator between water-based adventure experience and e-WOM intention and grandiose narcissism and e-WOM intention in adventure tourism settings.

Table 4.

Hypotheses and indirect effect results.

Hypothesis	Indirect path	Std. β value	Std. error	Confidence interval Bias corrected		t-value	p-value	Decision
Hypothesis	Indirect path	Std. β value	Std. error	Lower level	Upper level	t-value	p-value	Decision
H 6	Water-based adventure experience → positive self-presentation → e-WOM intention	0.312	0.056	0.203	0.422	5.557	0.000	Supported
H 7	Grandiose narcissism → self-presentation → e-WOM intention	0.119	0.054	0.014	0.225	2.192	0.028	Supported

e-WOM: electronic word-of-mouth communication.

Alongside the path coefficient results, researchers should report the R², Q², and f² values of the model (Hair et al., 2017). The R² value explains the variance of endogenous variables according to their corresponding exogenous variables. It is noted in Table 5 that positive self-presentation explained 45% of the variance in the model, while tourists’ e-word-of-mouth intention explained 69% of the variance, which is highly satisfactory in consumer behavior research (Hair et al., 2017).

Table 5.

Results of R² and Q².

Endogenous constructs	R²	Q²
Self-presentation	0.453	0.246
Electronic word-of-mouth communication intention	0.699	0.476

A PLS blindfolding procedure was used to assess the predictive relevance (Q²) of the model in which every Dth data point was omitted from the indicators of endogenous construct and the model was re-estimated with the remaining data points (Hair et al., 2017). The Q² values larger than 0 are considered the model’s predictive relevance for the respective endogenous construct. The Q² results revealed that the values of positive self-presentation and e-WOM intention are more than 0, indicating that the model has satisfactory predictive relevance.

In addition, the f² effect size reports the changes in the R² value of an endogenous construct if a specified exogenous construct is omitted from the model. The f² values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35, respectively, are considered small, medium, and large, and a value of less than 0.02 indicates no effect of exogenous constructs on an endogenous construct (Cohen, 1988; Hair et al., 2017).

Table 6 reports that the travelers’ water-based adventure experience had a medium effect, while travelers with high grandiose narcissism showed a small effect on their positive self-presentation. Water-based adventure experiences had a small effect, but grandiose narcissism did not affect travelers’ e-WOM intention. Finally, travelers’ positive self-presentation motive showed a large effect on their e-WOM intention.

Table 6.

Effect size (f²) results.

Relationships	F square	Effect size
Water-based adventure experience → self-presentation	0.172	Medium effect
Grandiose narcissism → self-presentation	0.025	Small effect
Water-based adventure experience → e-WOM intention	0.109	Small effect
Grandiose narcissism → e-WOM intention	0.004	No effect
Self-presentation → e-WOM intention	0.994	Large effect

e-WOM: electronic word-of-mouth communication.

Discussion of findings

The current study aims to examine the effect of tourists’ water-based adventure experiences, grandiose narcissism, and positive self-presentation on their e-WOM intention. The empirical results revealed that tourists’ water-based adventure experiences directly affected their self-presentation motive (H1). In addition, this finding is in line with prior studies in various consumer behavior and tourism settings (e.g., Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Park et al., 2016), which showed that customers are willing to share consumption experiences with others as a means of self-presentation. Publicized tourists’ travel-related experiences in the form of opinions, comments, reviews, and recommendations present themselves in an idealized manner, meaning that positive experiences contributed to promoting their self-presentation. Similarly, tourists’ water-based adventure experiences also significantly influenced their e-WOM intention on SNSs (H3), and the findings support various previous studies in travel and tourism contexts (e.g., Lee and Hsu, 2013; Liu et al., 2018; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016; Williams and Soutar, 2009). Triantafillidou and Petala (2016) argue that tourists’ water-based adventure experience dimensions, especially hedonism and socialization, were positive, while a feeling of flow was found to be negative in terms of adventure tourists’ satisfaction, re-experience, and WOM intention. Williams and Soutar (2009) claimed that the emotional value attributed by tourists to their experience was positively associated with their desire to re-experience it and to recommend it to others.

Additionally, the study also discovered that tourists’ grandiose narcissistic characteristics are the significant influencing factors for their self-presentation motive toward SNSs (H2). Previous studies (e.g., Fastoso et al., 2018; Gnambs and Appel, 2018; Li and Ku, 2018; Singh et al., 2018) claimed that individuals who exhibit higher grandiose narcissistic characteristics tend to engage in active self-presentation. A common notion in these studies is that grandiose narcissists are more likely to show off their achievements, skills, status, and happiness in personal life to impress others as a means of positive self-presentation (Gnambs and Appel, 2018; Li and Ku, 2018). Therefore, the findings of the current study are in agreement with the findings of prior studies. Nevertheless, surprisingly, tourists’ grandiose narcissism had no significant influence on their e-WOM via SNSs (H4), even though it had a significant indirect effect on their e-WOM intention through their positive self-presentation (Table 6). This finding is inconsistent with prior studies (e.g., Fastoso et al., 2018; Gnambs and Appel, 2018; Kang et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018), which argued that grandiose narcissists are more inclined to use SNSs for posting and sharing travel experiences as a form of e-WOM. The absence of a significant direct relationship between grandiose narcissism and e-WOM via social media in this study could be due to age differences among the participants: Gen X and Gen Y (Davenport et al., 2014; Leung, 2013), cultural differences: individualism and collectivism (Alhabash et al., 2012), use of different SNSs platforms: Facebook or Twitter (Davenport et al., 2014; Panek et al., 2013), as well as the influence of mediator variables in the model. Social media usage between individualistic cultures (e.g., the United States) and collectivistic Asian cultures (e.g., Korean, Taiwanese, and Chinese) has been found to differ (Alhabash et al., 2012), which leads to the degree of an individual’s narcissistic characteristics and social media use (Davenport et al., 2014). Thus, previous studies support the findings of the current study.

Finally, the influence of tourists’ self-presentation motive was found to have a significant influence on their e-WOM intentions (H5), and the findings also support the previous studies’ results (Fox et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2012, 2015). An individual’s self-presentation is a motivational characteristic to seek prestige, higher status, and a high place in society, which is largely influenced by his or her positive experiences gained from various activities, performances, and consumptions (Hasan et al., 2019). With advanced technologies, travelers now have more access to share and publicize their travel experiences with others who did not participate with them as well as with a larger anonymous audience, as a form of visible self-presentation (Kim et al., 2015). Hence, when travelers are well-informed of their consumptions and experiences as a form of self-expression, they are likely to generate e-WOM to impress others.

Research implications

The current study contributes to an extension of the knowledge, especially social media application in tourist behavior literature, and provides a substantial managerial implication for adventure tourism settings.

In theory, the conceptual model of this study is aligned with the self-presentation (Goffman, 2002) and self-enhancement models (e.g., Buffardi, 2011; Buffardi and Campbell, 2008; Campbell and Miller, 2011). The model also possesses a highly satisfactory variance to explain adventure tourists’ e-WOM intention in water-based tourism settings. According to the literature, since e-WOM is different than the conventional WOM in terms of dimensional mechanism of influence (Tham et al., 2013), the scarcity of research knowledge on e-WOM intention in adventure tourism settings is still evident. Thus, first, this study has empirically examined an e-WOM intention model in one of the least researched areas, water-based adventure tourism. Second, tourists’ travel experiences and their influence on travelers’ behavioral intention: re-experience and WOM in various tourism settings have been highlighted in several tourism studies. Nonetheless, the effect of water-based adventure experiences on travelers’ e-WOM intention has still not been proved in literature and is unique to this study. Additionally, the direct effect of water-based adventure experiences on tourists’ positive self-presentation and the indirect effect on e-WOM through positive self-presentation is unique for this study. Third, prior studies examined the direct and indirect influence of grandiose narcissism and positive self-presentation on SNSs use. However, the empirical relationship of travelers’ grandiose narcissism and positive self-presentation with their e-WOM intention in this study is novel that would enrich the contemporary tourism literature. Finally, the term e-WOM in prior tourism literature has been used as an antecedent of tourist destination choice behavior while this study used e-WOM as a behavioral outcome that is new in tourism literature.

In practice, according to the generic communication model, due to dimensional distinctions between WOM and e-WOM concepts, similar mechanisms of influence for both may not be attributable (Tham et al., 2013). Therefore, destination marketing practitioners should be proactive while practicing WOM as a promotion tool through social media. In destination marketing, potential travelers are not able to assess the performance of tourism offers and activities before the consumption experience. Sharing travel-related information, personal experiences, and opinions via text comments, photographs, and videos on social media from an experienced source as e-WOM information can aid potential travelers in decision-making (Kang and Schuett, 2013; Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2010). Thus, destination marketers must consider the significance of e-WOM in their marketing strategy and put in a great deal of effort to explore how to stimulate positive e-WOM concerning their tourism offers, experiences, and activities.

The findings of this study have revealed that tourists’ water-based adventure experiences have a direct influence on their self-presentation as well as e-WOM intention (Table 6). Based on the findings, it is obvious that sea-based recreational and adventure activities such as windsurfing, kite-surfing, water-rings riding, banana boating, jet-skiing, and diving are capable of producing intense feelings of pleasure and immersion and present a personal challenge (Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Tourists who experienced feelings of fun, cheerfulness, and pleasantness are more likely to evaluate the experience positively and transmit their positive experience to others—WOM. In addition, the study has also found the indirect influence of tourists’ water-based adventure experience on their e-WOM intention through positive self-presentation even if the indirect effect of water-based adventure experiences is stronger than the direct effect on e-WOM intention. This finding implies that if travelers are induced to think of their participation in water-based adventure activities as a form of self-expression, they may generate e-WOM to impress others. Similarly, tourists who had positive experiences with various water-based adventure activities and tend to be more inclined to present themselves to others are more likely to share their personal experiences and exciting moments on SNSs via text, photographs, and videos as a form of e-WOM information (Kim et al., 2015). Nowadays, marketers are struggling over how to identify influential individuals, connect with them, and encourage them to disseminate e-WOM messages in favor of a company’s product and services (Kim et al., 2015). Customers’ consumption experiences with water-based adventure activities offer a gateway not only for them to extend their self-identity online but also for companies to potentially transmit their marketing messages via e-WOM (Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2010). Presenting and sharing positive consumption experiences as a form of self-presentation on SNS via e-WOM as well as customer exposure to online reviews positively benefits a company’s success (Goldenberg et al., 2001; Jensen Schau and Gilly, 2003; Kim et al., 2015). Therefore, destination managers should put substantial effort into enhancing positive e-WOM communications for potential customers to make their business successful.

Moreover, the study has also found that grandiose narcissistic tourists are more inclined to self-presentation. However, tourists’ narcissistic characteristics have no significant influence on their e-WOM intention even though it has an indirect influence on e-WOM intention through the tourist self-presentation. In addition, the effect of tourists’ positive self-presentation is stronger than the effect of grandiose narcissism on their e-WOM intention (Table 6). This means that unless tourists’ positive self-presentation has pertained with SNSs, grandiose narcissistic characteristics are not guaranteed to lead to participants’ e-WOM intention. These findings justify that grandiose narcissistic tourists, who are more inclined to present themselves on SNSs, tend to share adventure experiences and post photos and videos on SNSs as e-WOM. Grandiose narcissistic travelers who post and share such experiences on SNSs as a form of e-WOM, on the one hand, extend their self-identity and self-presentation and, on the other hand, transmit marketing messages about the adventure activities, experiences, awareness, and locations to impress and attract others to have the same experience (Fastoso et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2018). Thus, to determine target marketing strategies in the competitive market, destination managers need to know which individuals exhibit grandiose narcissism, have tendencies to update their status more frequently for self-presentation than non-narcissists, and prefer to share travel-related information, experiences, and opinions via text comments, photographs, and videos on social media as e-WOM. Finally, marketers should keep their inquisitive eyes on which online content goes viral and make an effort to motivate travelers to make their destinations, photos, and experiences viral on social media, especially on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram to fulfill their narcissistic dreams.

Additionally, this study also has implications for local communities and host destinations. The implementation of any strategic plans based on these findings in coastal areas would benefit employment creation, economic activities mobilization, and enhancement of quality of life for the host community as well as the larger society. Finally, it could also be a source of information for future tourists on the various aspects of sea-based adventure tourism activities, especially in other countries like Malaysia.

Conclusion and future research directions

Coastal-based adventure tourism is one of the least researched areas in tourism literature. The experiential aspects of adventure tourism activities are always considered an unforgettable experience (Boniface, 2000). Nevertheless, adventure experiences such as windsurfing, kite-boarding, water skiing, parasailing, fly-fishing, jet-skiing, and scuba-diving in water settings are seen as more thrilling, exciting, and even challenging in some aspects of adventure activities (Beckman et al., 2017). Moreover, sea-based adventure activities provide a fertile ground for adventure experiences since participants most of the time engaging in such activities seek intense feelings of pleasure, absorption, and intense experiential outcomes (Wymer et al., 2010). In addition, they establish a connection with the natural environment (Imboden, 2012; Triantafillidou and Petala, 2016). Therefore, the findings of this study provide empirical knowledge to concerned authorities in formulating marketing strategies and policy-making decisions and also contribute to the existing body of knowledge, especially in water-based adventure tourism settings. However, first, a single study is not sufficient to generalize the findings. Therefore, further studies are encouraged to re-examine the variables used in the proposed model in the context of other beach destinations. Second, adventure experience is always challenging and risky. Nevertheless, this study covered only water-based adventure experiences, but the risk and uncertainty associated with those experiences were ignored. Therefore, further research is recommended including various risks associated with tourist adventure experiences along with water-based entertainments, the value offered, attractions, and the image of beach destinations. Third, grandiose narcissism is a personality trait that could influence an individual’s self-presentation and behavioral intention. However, tourists’ other psychological and socio-demographic factors including age, gender, experience, and social status might have a significant influence on their self-presentation and behavioral intention. Moreover, the path relationship between adventure experiences and grandiose narcissism was ignored in the current study. Therefore, our immediate plan is to examine the data empirically using multi-group analysis including tourists’ experiences with other factors, adventure experiences and grandiose narcissism perceived risks with water-based adventure activities, and tourist socio-demographic characteristics.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: I, Dr. Md. Kamrul Hasan, on behalf of the co-authors, declare that this paper has not been submitted fully or partially elsewhere to publish, and all authors have contributed and approved the current form of the manuscript to be submitted.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Md. K Hasan

Author Biographies

Dr. Md. Kamrul Hasan - an academic and researcher - received his PhD from Curtin Graduate School, Curtin University of Technology. His doctoral thesis dealt with tourists’ behavioural intention in Coastal tourism setting. His research interest and agenda are in the areas focusing on consumer behaviour in digital marketing, Coastal-based tourism, community-based tourism, pro-poor tourism, adventure tourism and religious tourism, and risk perception aspects of tourism destination marketing.

Nayeema Maswood Neela is an academic and researcher. Her research interest are in the area of consumer behavioural intention. She has over a quite number of academic publications in various peer reviewed index journals in national and international academia.

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