Female solo travels to south Asian destinations and sustaining loneliness

Abstract

While there has been an increase in the number of tourists travelling solo, there is a steady growth in females travelling alone as tourists around the globe. This phenomenon has led to a growing scholarly interest, yet solo female travel as a research topic is relatively under-researched. Only limited knowledge exists about the psychological issues of female solo travel, such as loneliness. There is a gap in our understanding of interpreting solo travel by females, depending on their country of origin and the type of destinations they have travelled solo. This study examined these aspects by exploring female solo travelling in South Asian destinations with European and Asian participants. The results revealed that the meaning of solo travelling is associated with four themes: freedom pursuit, being with the self, self-enhancement, and connectedness with people. It also disclosed that solo female travellers have different perceptions about ‘loneliness,’ and everyone does not see loneliness as a negative outcome. The results further indicate that the perception of solo travel and loneliness and how to cope with lonely times are likely to be subjective to the type of destinations where solo travelling takes place and the country of origin of the travellers.

Keywords

Female solo travellers women solo travels meaning of solo travelling loneliness south Asian destinations

Introduction

As a niche market, solo travellers have evolved as an important market segment in the tourism field, and research on various aspects of solo travelling is improving. Female solo travelling has recently captured significant attention of scholars since the understanding of the behaviour of this traveller category can provide insights for destination marketing efforts to attract more solo female travellers (Heimtun and Abelsen, 2013; Mehmetoglu, 2003; Xie, 2019; Yang et al., 2018a, 2018b). In the tourist research context, several studies have attempted to identify the motivations, experiences, constraints, and risk perceptions of female solo travellers (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006; Osman et al., 2020; Seow and Brown, 2018; Wilson, 2004; Xie, 2019; Yang et al., 2018a, 2018b). However, research on the psychological risks of female solo travellers, specifically in the context of South Asian destinations, is limited, as travellers perceive this region as more of an ‘insecure’ nature due to the region’s specific inherent characteristics (Rasul and Manandhar, 2009; Thapa, 2004; Thomas and Mura, 2019).

Among the other constraints and issues, the feeling of loneliness is a significant element of solo travelling, as examined by several scholars, such as its meanings and coping mechanisms (Breda et al., 2020; Goodwin and Lockshin, 1992; Kazeminia et al., 2015; Wilson, 2004; Yang, 2021). According to Carey (2019), a famous blog writer, the feeling of loneliness is the main problem solo travellers face during their trips. Nevertheless, how female solo travellers perceive the feeling of loneliness and how they cope with the situations may differ depending on the travel motives, situations, country of origin, and destination (Osman et al., 2020; Thomas and Mura, 2019; Yang et al., 2018a, 2018b). As these perspectives have received insufficient scholarly attention, the present study aims to further explore female solo travels to South Asian destinations with particular attention to the ‘feeling of loneliness’ during their tours, with the following three objectives:

• To explore the meanings of solo travel among female solo travellers who have travelled to South Asian destinations.

• To explore how female solo travellers perceive the feeling of loneliness in the context of South Asian destinations.

• To identify how female solo travellers sustain the feeling of loneliness during their tours.

Literature review

Solo travellers

Tourists make multiple travel decisions before and during travel, and heterogeneity typically persists among these choices. The selection of a travel party is one of these travel options, and the decision to travel alone (Wu et al., 2011) is a choice within this alternative. According to Bianchi (2016), there is a rising trend of individuals opting to be alone during consumption practices, such as travelling. Solo traveller, referring to a person who arrives in a country alone, is a part of the independent traveller community (Foo, 1999), so the term mainly refers to one’s arrival status. The number of solo travellers is constantly increasing due to demographic changes in the world, such as the tendency for late marriages and remaining single longer, as well as the growing aging population (Bianchi, 2016; Laesser et al., 2009). Other likely reasons for the popularity of solo travel include rising individualism, a lack of connectivity, and rising consumerism (Laesser et al., 2009). Thus, solo travel has gained scholars’ attention in tourism in recent years (Hamid et al., 2021; Yang, 2021; Yang et al., 2022).

Previous research has examined various aspects of solo travel, i.e., travel motives (Bianchi, 2016; Laesser et al., 2009; Mehmetoglu, 2003; Osman et al., 2020), travel restrictions and anxiety (Bianchi, 2016; Karagöz et al., 2021; Su and Wu, 2020; Wilson, 2004; Wilson and Little, 2008), spending patterns (Laesser et al., 2009), and hotel selection criteria (Herjanto et al., 2020). Solo travel has been widely studied in relation to adventure and backpacking tourism, frequently identifying young and adventurous individuals characterized as solo travellers (Laesser et al., 2009). Laesser et al. (2009) found solo travellers to be more emphatic, emotional, and creative than group travellers regarding their personal characteristics. They are more involved in the journey and see travel as a significant part of their lives (Mehmetoglu, 2003).

Female solo travellers have been increasing significantly in recent years and scholarly research investigating solo female travelling has been an evolving field (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006; Hosseini et al., 2022; Wilson, 2004). Female solo travellers’ perceptions regarding different phenomena are primarily affected by their cultural background (Yang et al., 2018a). Asians are loyal to the values of their culture (especially chastity) and gender roles that stem from patriarchy and are highly concerned about the public’s judgment of them, which is less seen among westerners. Religions practiced in most Asian countries can further affect their perceptions of travelling (Awang, 2018). In particular, the risk perception of these travellers is affected by the culture in which they grew up. In Asia, females are held responsible for being in a safe space and not inviting trouble, as opposed to the west. This makes them avoid evening entertainment activities and places that western females do not consider overly unsafe to avoid judgment and risk, which will give them less chance of socializing and mitigating loneliness.

When compared to the literature on ‘solo travelling’ in general, studies undertaken on female solo travelling are limited (for example, see Breda et al., 2020; Heimtun and Abelsen, 2013; Jin and Zhang, 2022; Nikjoo et al., 2021; Seow and Brown, 2018; Valaja, 2018; Wilson and Little, 2005; Yang, 2021; Yang et al., 2022). The motivations for female solo travelling, perceived empowerment and resistance, perception of insecurity, and psychological risks faced by female solo travellers are some of the aspects studied by previous research (Breda et al., 2020; Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006; Heimtun and Abelsen, 2013; Jordan and Gibson, 2005; Seow and Brown, 2018; Wilson, 2004; Wilson and Little, 2005; Yang, 2021; Yang et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2022). The literature identifies different types of risks relating to solo travelling, some of which are gender-related while some are common to both male and female travellers: for example, failure to achieve the expected satisfaction, destruction of the self-image-stereotyping, racial hurdles, discomposure, anxiety, insecurity, and culture shocks (Roehl and Fesenmaier, 1992; Valaja, 2018; Wantono and McKercher, 2020). The feeling of loneliness has also been identified as a significant psychological risk faced by solo travellers (Heimtun and Abelsen, 2013; Valaja, 2018; Wilson, 2004).

Loneliness is defined as a similar concept to ‘isolation from society’ when it is not needed by a person. It is felt when one thinks that their social needs are not being fulfilled at the time concerned. Lonely individuals view their surrounding world more negatively and perceive a higher risk that makes them nervous (Heinrich and Gullone, 2006). Loneliness should be distinguished from being ‘alone’—the prior is an undesired situation, while the latter is desired and yearned for (Jordan and Aitchison, 2008; Yang, 2021). Females may feel loneliness more than males (Heinrich and Gullone, 2006); thus loneliness of solo travelling females needs further research. Research works have examined the link between travelling alone and ‘loneliness’ (Bianchi, 2016; Hamid et al., 2021; Heimtun, 2012; Heinrich and Gullone, 2006; Yang, 2021), for instance, loneliness and fears of getting attacked have been identified as a restriction on solo travelling (Heimtun, 2012; Wilson and Little, 2008).

As Carey (2019) points out, loneliness is an unavoidable side effect of travelling alone; no matter which way travellers cut it, they will feel the sting of isolation at some point. Taking control of ‘loneliness’ is thus a common topic on websites and blogs related to travelling (Boland, 2019; Fitzsimons, 2021). Regarding solo travel to South Asian destination, the overall security situation of the region has remained a significant concern, and the literature highlighted the existence of constraints for female ‘solo travellers’ in these destinations (Rasul and Manandhar, 2009). Compared to other parts of Asia, such as South East Asia, tourism growth in general and solo female travel, in particular, are minimal in the South Asian region mainly due to the ‘insecure’ nature associated with the region’s specific inherent characteristics (De Alwis, 2010; Rasul and Manandhar, 2009; Thapa, 2004; Thomas and Mura, 2019; World Tourism Organization, 2020). Hence, the current understanding of how female solo travellers perceive solo travelling to a south Asian destination and how they deal with loneliness in such a context needs further investigations. The present study aims to explore these aspects through a qualitative inquiry to provide further insights for better catering to this rising travel segment.

Methodology

The current study is placed within an interpretive and feminist theory research framework to investigate female solo travellers’ perceptions of solo travelling and how they deal with the ‘feeling of loneliness.’ It is commonly acknowledged that qualitative techniques such as interviews are particularly effective for allowing the ‘voice’ of the tourist to be heard (Mcintosh, 1998; Small, 1999). The choice of interpretive research paradigm enabled the study to explore solo female travellers’ experiences of loneliness and how they deal with that in their own terms and words. This also allowed the researchers to capture the in-depth meanings that solo female travellers attach to ‘solo travelling’ and their feeling of loneliness, particularly in a South Asian destination.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to achieve this purpose with 25 female solo travellers representing European and Asian backgrounds. Data saturation occurred after the 20^th interview. Non-random, purposive sampling methods were used to intercept the potential participants, including ‘snowball’ sampling. The first few participants were chosen from the researchers’ own networks and social media, and more participants were located from the initial contacts. The following three criteria were employed to select the study participants:

(1) The origin of the participant should be either Asia or Europe,

(2) The participant has travelled solo at least once in her adult life, and the purpose of that travel is not for business; and

(3) At least one solo travel has been made to a South Asian destination.

The decision to investigate solo female travellers of European and Asian origins was made to see if there are differences between the two groups in terms of their different cultural and social backgrounds, as previous research had suggested (Osman et al., 2020; Thomas and Mura, 2019; Yang et al., 2018a, 2018b). Meanings of solo travel and perceptions of loneliness in a South Asian destination, in particular, may differ between the two groups, given that Asian travellers are more likely to be familiar with the conditions of South Asian destinations than European travellers. The age range of the participants was between 25 to 59 and the majority belonged to the 25–40 age group. 15 participants were Europeans, and 10 were Asians. The Asian participants were primarily from South and Southeast Asia, possibly due to the lack of Facebook use and language difficulties in some other Asian countries. Most interviewed females were single (14 females) and without children. Participants are reasonably highly educated, and 19 out of 25 have earned tertiary education or are currently studying at tertiary institutions such as universities. Nine participants are either self-employed or entrepreneurs, while the rest are employed full-time in different fields. Most participants have widely travelled to several destinations.

All the interviews were tape-recorded with the consent of the participants and transcribed for analysis purposes. The analysis was performed with data coding to derive the underlying themes associated with the ‘meanings’ of solo travelling and ‘the feeling of loneliness’ experienced during the tours. ‘Constant comparison method’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) helped to compare and contrast the key quotes of the transcribed interviews in arriving at meaningful themes related to the critical research issues of the study.

The researchers followed the general ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association (2017). Accordingly, informed participation was ensured by explaining the purpose of the research and declaring that their decision to participate in the study was totally voluntary. Confidentiality was ensured through confidential and secured data handling, data storing, and reporting of the findings.

Results

Meanings of solo travelling

Comparisons and reflections of the participants’ stories made common premises and perceptions apparent regarding how the participants understood the meaning of ‘solo travelling.’ Four overarching themes emerged from the initial categories that describe female solo travellers’ perception of solo travelling: (1) freedom pursuit, (2) being with the self, (3) self-enhancement, and (4) being able to connect with others freely. It is noteworthy that these four themes seem interconnected with an overlapping nature and thus should not be considered mutually exclusive meanings.

Freedom pursuit

Many participants, particularly those with an Asian background, expressed their understanding of solo travelling as a way of ‘freedom pursuit’ manifested in different wordings such as independence, relaxation, state of being free from others’ judgments, and peace and quiet. They expressed these aspects on general terms rather than attributing them only to South Asian destinations. Travelling solo enabled female solo travellers to make their own decisions and not to depend on others’ schedules. Many Asian female participants acknowledged that solo travelling means freedom and independence for them. Most participants highlighted the freedom to make decisions. For instance, a girl with an Islamic background who has travelled extensively in Asia and Middle East countries revealed a great sense of freedom while travelling alone: ‘…for me, solo travel means total freedom. I feel like a free bird who can fly high and anywhere. No one is there to stop or judge you’ (Participant B). Another similar response was, ‘…definitely, it is independence. Because I like to do what I want to do and when you travel alone nobody cares and you are unstoppable’ (Participant K). Several participants stated that they faced fewer problems in making decisions than in groups because they did not have to negotiate travel decisions with other people and felt relaxed when travelling. This freedom to decide the travel itinerary and things to do was a major aspect of freedom for most European participants. As one participant noted: ‘It is super relaxing because you can make all decisions on your own. You are not dependent on anyone who tells you I should do like this or that blah blah’ (Participant L). It is clear that when travelling with friends and family, the freedom that female solo travellers want to enjoy is compromised by others’ concerns: ‘I like being myself. Sometimes I travel with my friends, and the more people are, the harder to find something you all want to do’ (Participant F).

Being with the self

Several participants identified solo travelling ‘as a way of searching for self.’ They view it as ideal for self-awareness, self-reflection, and clarifying self-identity. This notion was uncovered by European and Asian participants, but for many European participants compared to Asians, solo travel means self-discovery and forming their identity: ‘You really get to know yourself when you travel solo. It is empowering because you get to do all these things and take care of yourself’ (Participant L). Another affirmed this by clarifying how solo travelling assisted her in becoming a better person: ‘…Solo travelling helped me to become a better person as I’ve learned to get to know myself better and learn about other peoples’ stories’ (Participant M). Some participants reconnected with themselves, learned about themselves, and found their travel interests while travelling solo. ‘I’ve learned so much about myself and my ever-changing travel style while travelling solo … it’s a great time to reconnect with me and truly enjoy my me-time’ (Participant F).

Self-enhancement

Closely related to ‘being with self,’ some participants described solo travelling as a ‘self-enhancement’ activity that helped them to learn new skills, to broaden their life perspectives, and strengthen their self-confidence, particularly in the South Asian context. Both European and Asian participants equally highlighted this aspect as a major benefit of travelling solo. Participants generally viewed that solo travel offers a unique and essential way of building their sense of self-confidence and self-empowerment. As one traveller highlighted: ‘it improves confidence. You are not fear of anything once you travel alone, which is a very, very big benefit’ (Participant N). A participant stressed because of the sudden demise of her mother had started travelling solo which helped her to build self-confidence:

…I feel so self-confident because I do everything on my own—When we are travelling to an unknown place, I mean the countries like India, there can be problems, and we have to face them on our own. For general life also that can be a support. Because we feel like if I do this on my own, why can’t I face other problems? (Participant C)

Some participants highlighted the meanings of solo travelling as being open, having a great sense of awareness, and a way to become more down to earth. Some said solo travelling allows them to see a situation from a different perspective particularly in South Asian destinations: ‘it opens my mind, open my eyes, and open my heart. Also allows me to reduce my ignorance and not to be judgmental’ (Participant H). Another disclosed the same point, ‘…your way of thinking changes … you realize that all the people in the world are always the same; [we] are all connected. It makes me feel like no stress or maybe like opening my mind and heart’ (Participant F).

Connecting with people

Solo travelling also allowed female solo travellers to build personal connections, new friendships, and relationships with others during their journeys. Both European and Asian participants acknowledged that this ability to connect freely with others was one significant way of providing meaning to solo travelling. Meeting new people such as locals, other travellers, and service providers and getting to know about their lives and culture were the key highlights of this theme. For some solo females, travelling alone was not only about building friendships but also about receiving kindness from strangers. For example, a widow in her late 50s described solo travelling as meeting people and becoming a member of a bigger family.

It’s always people. Actually, 90% of people have a good heart, they want to help you, and are friendly. …It is very humbling how people can be so gracious and giving. It just makes me feel like a bigger family than I had before (Participant P).

They commonly agreed that travelling alone will pave a path to mingle with other travellers and locals better than travelling with friends or family:

… especially when you travel alone, you are putting yourself in the situations like staying in hotels you are always surrounded by other travellers. And everybody is always very happy and ready to meet people, and that’s the whole point of solo travelling, you meet a lot of people (Participant O).

Female solo travellers’ perception of loneliness

Thematic analysis of solo female traveller s’ stories about how they perceive ‘the feeling of loneliness’ in a South Asian destination revealed three themes: (1) not feeling lonely truly, (2) loneliness as a positive feeling, and (3) loneliness as a negative feeling.

Not feeling lonely truly

Several participants disclosed that they did not feel lonely during their solo travelling. It seems that female solo travellers who want to be alone and enjoy it during their travel do not perceive a ‘feeling of loneliness.’ For instance, a traveller who identified herself as an introvert and travelled extensively in South Asia, was totally fine being on her own.

I love being on my own and feel at ease, peaceful, and very comfortable alone … I feel overwhelmed in crowded places or anywhere with a lot of people … I need my alone time, I like spending time with myself, and I love being lonely (Participant G)

For some female participants, travelling alone is only a physical separation, but mentally, they are linked to their family and friends and thus do not feel ‘lonely’: ‘I love being myself. If you make friends with yourself, you will never be alone actually. …mmm, it’s just a physical separation but mentally, you can be with your family or friends’ (Participant A). Some participants claimed that they are always busy with some activity, so they hardly have time to worry about loneliness: ‘I really don’t feel lonely since I’m always occupied with something, which may be by packing up my itinerary with lots of places to visit, and once I’m back in the hostel, I will fall asleep’ (Participant E).

Loneliness as a positive outcome

Approximately half of the participants enjoyed being lonely and considered it a positive feeling. Both Asians and Europeans agreed that they perceive loneliness as a positive and beneficial concept that makes them stronger: ‘[it] makes you stronger. For me, loneliness is not a handicap. It’s an advantage’ (Participant N). Being lonely made them reflect on things in life that helped them to learn about themselves as depicted by the following comments: ‘I think when you are alone, you get to know yourself better, and I enjoy my time with myself’ (Participant B), ‘…I learn about myself and what are my likes and dislikes during my alone time…’ (Participant L), ‘in comparison, to be alone doesn’t necessarily need to be something bad. If I choose to be alone, I can still be happy and content’ (Participant R). Some solo females further highlighted loneliness as a benefit in terms of providing opportunities for social interactions: ‘…loneliness sometimes offers you loads of opportunities to connect with others’ (Participant C).

Loneliness as a negative feeling

Several solo female travellers described loneliness as a negative feeling since it makes them isolated from others. The major concerns for these participants were feeling homesick and feeling sad when not having someone intimate to associate with or to share the good times or unpleasant situations: ‘In the context of travel, I perceive loneliness as homesickness…It’s like you are isolated and it can be a sadness from not having anyone to share moments with’ (Participant O); ‘… actually it is like you may be surrounded by some strange people, but you don’t have someone who is really close to you, who knows about you’ (Participant D). Such claims were mostly made by participants with Asian ancestry. Others revealed that disconnecting from their loved ones for an extended time or missing them on important days were the major situations where they felt lonely: ‘I was in there for 1 month, and I realized that I could not enjoy myself alone for too many days. At one time, we need someone to be with us’ (Participant H).

These descriptions suggest that after a certain time, even solo travellers who prefer to be alone may experience loneliness as negative. Some participants revealed that though they intended to be alone during solo travel, they felt lonely when they had no one to talk to as all other travellers had partners. One further clarified that making social relationships with other travellers along the journey is no longer easier due to social media and the internet:

It was easier to meet people on the way before social media. It was much more socially accepted while travelling, just to go to another table and hang around with the people sitting there. Since mobile, and the internet, it is not really happening anymore, I think. So in that sense, you are more alone physically (Participant T)

Some participants, particularly those of European origin, recalled unpleasant incidents they encountered while travelling alone in South Asian destinations, which made them feel lonely:

…then I feel like if there’s a partner with me, it will be great. I was travelling to [city name], and it was around 9.30 p.m. when I come there. I travelled with a big backpack and was very tired looking, wearing denim and a t-shirt which are not any kind of revealing clothes. But still, people ask, “nangi koheda yanne” [sister, where are you heading]? Putting us down to like prostitutes. Then I feel like, what if somebody is there with me, people will not think anything bad about me (Participant O)

Some participants felt lonely when there was no one to take a photo when they wanted it or when they needed support but were helpless due to travelling alone. Predominantly, they felt lonely when something went wrong, when they were having a bad day, or when they were too tired; then they wished that somebody was there to help them:

Sometimes you know you are having a bad day, or something goes wrong, and you are like, oh, you know, it could be so nice to have someone to talk to and to discuss it with or to explain it to, someone to support you emotionally (Participant T)

How female solo travellers sustain loneliness

Solo female travellers understood loneliness from different viewpoints, but every solo female traveller accepted that loneliness is an inevitable part of solo travelling, at least occasionally. Analysis of participants’ responses regarding how they deal with loneliness in a South Asian destination revealed three themes: (1) spending the lonely time meaningfully, (2) connecting with others, and (3) enjoying loneliness with pleasurable things.

Spending lonely time meaningfully

The majority of the female solo travellers who perceived ‘loneliness’ as a positive consequence of solo travel utilized such lonely times to engage in meaningful activities. Frequently mentioned activities were reading books, engaging in spiritual activities, learning about local lives and cultures, or learning something new. For instance, travelling solo for more than 10 years, a matured solo traveller enjoys reading whenever she feels lonely: ‘If I ever catch myself feeling alone on a trip, I’ll read. It distracts, and it is a good way to tune out of the world and your obsessions’ (Participant L). Another said, ‘I read books. Normally I carry a book when I’m travelling solo. If I feel a little lonely, maybe on a train or at my accommodation, I read it’ (Participant C). Being spiritual was another option for some participants to spend their lonely time: ‘I go to temples; it actually slows down my emotions and relaxes me’ (Participant G). Another went on to say: ‘Meditation and yoga can calm you down. Clear up your mind; whatever the negative thoughts will go away, and it gives you a sense of what’s around you, and you can live in the moment’ (Participant B). Some female solo travellers, mostly from the European background, spent their lonely time to know about local life, culture, and local food and exploring something new:

I like to go and see local markets. I like to be in farmers’ markets; I like the places where people bring the stuff that they grow; I like them because it is different. When you feel lonely, it’s always good to keep yourself occupied with something new (Participant J)

Several others had used their lonely time in writing, blogging, and posting on social media about their experiences and places visited to inspire others, educate the world, and help other travellers to have better experiences: ‘I try to be a travel blogger, not very professional, just to keep myself away from being sad about loneliness. So, I just post about the history of the places I visit. I try to educate people’ (Participant K).

Connectedness with others

The feeling of loneliness encouraged female solo travellers to meet people and be more receptive to new people they encountered during their journeys. Although solo travellers intend to be alone by nature, most participants wanted to talk with locals and other travellers when they felt lonely. This was the most common way of dealing with loneliness among the participants from Europe. Bars and restaurants were considered the ideal meeting points for solo female travellers. Hostels were the preferred accommodation option for most participants in solo tours since they facilitated connecting with other travellers easily. Some participants had even planned trips with fellow travellers staying in the same hostel.

… yeah, I like to meet people, and actually, that’s the reason why I like to stay in hostels. It’s because oftentimes, there are a lot of other solo travellers, so I like to get to know other people. And yeah, especially I like to meet locals, so maybe at a restaurant, I might talk to the other people and get some insights, where should I go or see and just talk about life in that country (Participant E)

Another affirmed this saying that she always prefers homestays: ‘I usually go for homestays. If I can find a homestay, I will definitely go for a homestay, and that’s not really because of the price; it is also because you get closer to the people’ (Participant M). Several solo female travellers had connected with their loved ones, such as family members, whenever they felt lonely. Only European female solo travellers elaborated on this way of coping with loneliness. For example, the participant (T), who was in India for months as a solo traveller, tried to eliminate her negative feelings of being lonely by contacting her friends through different social media apps: ‘To eliminate [loneliness], sometimes I talk to friends via Skype or FaceTime, Messenger video with friends on occasions when we can take our time zones right. And that helps’ (Participant T).

Enjoying loneliness with pleasurable things

Several participants who viewed loneliness as a positive outcome or ‘not feeling lonely truly’ expressed how they enjoyed lonely times by having food, appreciating nature, or some other entertainment options such as watching films. For example, some participants had spent their lonely time cooking and eating food, particularly the local cuisine, which was most noticeable among the participants from Europe: ‘I eat [Laughing]. Sometimes, I go to the supermarket and pick some groceries and cook myself. I enjoy it, so it will be just like a normal day’ (Participant R); ‘I normally look for restaurants when I’m alone where I can have a good meal that is worth it… so no time to feel lonely’ (Participant P); ‘I like authentic local food and would go for restaurants where I can try new food so that I really forget all other issues. I spend a lot on this [Laughing]’ (Participant L). Some participants enjoyed the lonely time by relaxing with food and nature:

I like to eat some food and have a beer and enjoy the scenery, and in the night-time, I like to enjoy the sky; and maybe in cool weather, I like to have firewood and feel that moment alone. I enjoy that freedom (Participant C)

Discussion and implications

Based on the stories of the females interviewed, it is possible to state that ‘freedom pursuit’ is a commonly discussed meaning of solo travelling among female solo travellers. Previous research has also identified this, regardless of the type of destinations where solo travels have occurred (Li et al., 2011; Wilson and Harris, 2006). However, freedom for solo female travellers with European origins is more related to an ‘escape’ from the daily routine life and freedom to decide the travel itinerary. In contrast, solo female travellers with an Asian background find independence and the ability to make free decisions as they wish. These findings are consistent with Xie (2019), who found that Asian females aim to find independence in a dominant masculine society during solo travel. The results also identified ‘being with the self’ as another aspect of solo travelling since many participants identified solo travelling as being with the self and self-exploration, as acknowledged by both European and Asian solo travellers. Many European travellers highlighted it as ‘self-discovery.’ The results agree with the findings of Wilson and Harris (2006) and Yang et al. (2019), who disclosed that solo travelling provides a means for searching for self and forming self-identity.

Results also indicate that solo travelling enables females to find their self-identity and enrich themselves in terms of personal growth and self-development. Previous research identified personal growth as a motivational factor for solo travelling (Bianchi, 2016; Mehmetoglu, 2003). The present study proposes a broader theme called ‘self-enhancement’ covering all the related aspects, including self-empowerment, learning new things, being open to embracing other lifestyles, and broadening life perspectives. It appears that travellers’ exposure to the living conditions of the people in South Asian destinations, their day-to-day life, and cultural values, and coping with various obstacles when travelling to a South Asian destination have enabled female solo travellers to enrich themselves. As Bond (1997) states, solo female travellers are searching for adventure, learning, new experiences, and self-awareness. Thus, travelling solo is considered an inner journey of personal growth and self-development rather than simply consuming sights, faces, and places (Wilson and Harris, 2006).

‘Social connections’ immerged as another meaning associated with solo travelling, albeit female solo travellers had decided to travel alone. This may be attributed to the fact that the possibility of meeting new people and making friends is greater while travelling solo than travelling with others. While there have been a growing number of people living alone and an increasing normalization of public display of aloneness, being alone is still often linked to the stigma of lacking social connection (Heimtun, 2010). Wilson and Harris (2006), in their research for meaningful travel, found connectedness with others/‘global citizenship’ as a major aspect of females’ independent travelling. The results derived from this study provide further explanations for the meaning of connectedness in the context of solo travelling; that is, being able to ‘freely’ connect with others in the absence of their family and friends because females may not feel the full freedom to meet people when they travel together with their partners, family, or friends without been judged.

It is apparent from the results that solo female travellers feel ‘lonely’ at least occasionally though they have different perceptions of it. Previous research has considered loneliness as a risk; thus, a negative connotation is meant for feeling lonely while travelling solo (Heimtun, 2012; Valaja, 2018; Wilson and Little, 2008). Nevertheless, the current study revealed that some female solo travellers do not feel ‘truly lonely’ during their journeys, whereas some do not always see it as a negative aspect. Both Asian and European females shared the perception of loneliness with similar views in general, indicating that the psychology of loneliness is common for solo travellers regardless of their country of origin. However, conditions that make solo female travellers feel lonely appear to differ between Asian and European travellers. For example, the majority of solo Asian travellers perceive loneliness as a negative experience, and they feel lonely when they want intimacy from someone in certain good or bad situations, which may be due to the collectivistic nature of their cultures. Travelers from Europe, on the other hand, often feel lonely when confronted with unpleasant incidents in unfamiliar cultural and social backgrounds of the South Asian region. The results suggest linkages between how solo female travellers perceive loneliness and how they respond to it. Those who perceive it positively or as an expected aspect of solo travelling tend to utilize lonely time in meaningful ways such as reading, learning, writing, and engaging in spiritual activities, or simply spending lonely time with nature, food, and other entertainment options. However, solo female travellers from different social and cultural backgrounds may have different preferences when it comes to meaningful engagements during lonely times. Those who consider loneliness as a negative outcome deal with that mainly by reconnecting with people such as other travellers and residents and making connections with their loved ones. Homestays, restaurants, and bars provide good meeting points for these travellers to mitigate loneliness. These findings are consistent with Wilson (2004), who stated that travellers engage in risk reduction strategies that increase the certainty of them not ending up lonely, such as choosing typical backpacker destinations, booking accommodation in hostels, keeping travel itinerary flexible, and spending time in hostels’ common areas and/or backpackers’ bars.

When considering the participants’ country of origin, reconnecting with loved ones was predominantly highlighted by European participants as a way of coping with loneliness. This may be because Asian females travel solo to avoid family responsibilities and norms. Asian societies’ expectations for females are that they should be family-oriented rather than travelling (Xie, 2019). Hence they may not prefer reconnecting with their family during the trip so that they can fully enjoy the ‘freedom pursuit.’ Europeans primarily considered engaging in new activities or experiencing something new during their lonely time. Asians typically did not consider this option, probably because they are much more familiar with South Asian cultures, values, and environments.

The study’s findings have a number of implications for destination marketing efforts. Because loneliness is a major concern for some female solo travellers, destination marketing efforts must consider how they can be assisted throughout their journeys, as loneliness is a type of psychological state of travellers. Destinations, for example, can promote accommodations with necessary amenities, such as homestays and hostels, to better meet these travellers’ need for social interactions, particularly with local families. The intimacy they feel with the local families can help to alleviate the negative feelings associated with loneliness. Engaging more local residents in tourism activities such as community-based tourism will be a significant benefit because most participants wanted to visit local villages and markets and experience authentic local life and cultures during their lonely time. Good internet access will be critical for these travellers because social media is the primary channel through which they communicate with their loved ones when they are lonely. However, different travel preferences based on country of origin must be considered when implementing such strategies.

Another option for reducing loneliness for these solo travellers is to provide professional guide services. It may make them feel as if someone is there to help them when they need it, thus alleviating their loneliness. Several participants mentioned the need for assistance, which made them feel lonely while travelling alone. Making the journey safe and easy for these visitors, as well as providing plenty of information, can help them feel less lonely during their tours. Changing local residents’ attitudes toward solo female travellers will also help to reduce the awkward situations they encounter when visiting South Asian destinations, where some people may have incorrect perceptions of female solo travellers and react accordingly due to cultural differences.

To better cater to this travel segment, destination marketing organizations (DMOs) should identify the needs, motivations, and expectations of this traveller group and share these insights with tourism industry stakeholders such as accommodations and other service providers. Proper integration of tourism and other industries, such as modern trade and entertainment, would also contribute to more enjoyable experiences for this traveller group. Such efforts would help to attract more of this travel segment through the positive word-of-mouth effects of social media and travel blogs, as solo travellers prefer to share their experiences and reviews with the rest of the world, especially during lonely times. DMOs, therefore, should consider enlisting the help of travel bloggers and writers from this segment, who will be invaluable in promoting the destinations since travel blog posts are a credible source for potential visitors because they are authentic tourist experiences shared by travellers with no commercial intent (Li and Wang, 2011; Volo, 2010).

Conclusion and future research

Only limited research is available on how female solo travellers perceive the meanings of solo travel in different types of destinations, particularly how they sustain the feeling of loneliness. This study used an interpretive research paradigm to investigate female solo travellers’ perceptions of solo travel, how they view ‘loneliness,’ and how they sustain loneliness based on solo travel experiences in South Asian destinations. The study also compared the results of solo female travellers from Europe and Asia to see if there were any differences between the two groups. The findings revealed four themes of the meanings of solo travel: freedom pursuit, being with oneself, self-improvement, and connecting with others. In terms of the feeling of loneliness, solo female travellers hold different views of it and exert multiple ways of dealing with it. According to the findings, ways of coping with loneliness appear to differ depending on whether loneliness is viewed negatively or positively. Even those who enjoy being alone while travelling alone may experience ‘the lonely feeling’ on occasion. As predicted by previous research, the findings show that there are differences as well as similarities between the two groups in terms of the meanings of solo travel to a South Asian destination, loneliness perception, and sustaining loneliness. Understanding such similarities and differences among solo travellers based on their country of origin would have additional implications for catering to this growing travel segment around the world.

This paper only presented the perspectives of leisure-purpose female solo travellers on solo travel. More research on female solo travellers travelling for other reasons, such as business, would shed more light on the current state of knowledge about female solo travel. Furthermore, studying solo female travels while considering different traveller types such as backpackers and organized package tourists would contribute to our current understanding of the phenomenon. Future research could look into whether female solo travellers’ perceptions of solo travel and feelings of loneliness differ depending on their country of origin, using samples from various cultural and social backgrounds. This study only looked at it on a small scale and with a small sample size.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The work reported in this publication was supported by the Research Centre for Management Studies and Commerce of the Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Lalith Chandralal

Thilinika Dahanayake

Author Biographies

Malithi Neluhena is a second year MBA student at University of South Wales, UK. She received the BBM degree in Hospitality, Tourism and Events Management from Uva Wellassa University of Sri Lanka in 2016 and the M.Sc. degree in Management from the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka in 2021.

Lalith Chandralal is a professor at the Department of Marketing, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. He holds a Doctoral Degree in Tourism from the University of New England, Australia. Currently, he is the director of the Research Center of the Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka.

Thilinika Dahanayake is a freshly passed out graduate from the Department of Marketing Management of University of Sri Jayewardenepura (USJ). She is currently working as the Research Assistant at the Research Center of the Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce of the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka.

References

American Psychological Association (2017) Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Available at: https://www.apa.org/ethics/code (accessed 13 February 2020).

Awang

(2018) A review on Malaysian female’s leisure and perceptions towards solo travelling. International Journal of Engineering and Technology 7(3.25): 139–142.

Bianchi

(2016) Solo holiday travellers: motivators and drivers of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. International Journal of Tourism Research 18(2): 197–208.

Boland

(2019) Solo travel for female is about freedom, in every sense of the word. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2019/mar/08/solo-travel-for-women-is-about-freedom-in-every-sense-of-the-word-rosita-boland (accessed 21 March 2021).

Bond

(1997) Female travellers: a new growth market. Available at: https://www.hotel-online.com/News/PressReleases/PataWomenTravellers_Nov1997.html (accessed 17 March 2021).

Breda

Santos

Kliček

, et al. (2020) Profile, motivations, and experiences from portuguese solo female travelers. In: Pius

Alharahsheh

Adesanmi

(eds) Contemporary Management Approaches to the Global Hospitality and Tourism Industry. USA: IGI Global, pp.131–150.

Carey

(2019) The 4 best ways to conquer loneliness on a solo trip. Available at: https://www.cntraveller.com/article/solo-travel-loneliness (accessed 27 May 2021).

Chiang

Jogaratnam

(2006) Why do female travel solo for purposes of leisure? Journal of Vacation Marketing 12(1): 59–70.

De Alwis

(2010) Promoting tourism in South Asia. In: Ahmed

Kelegama

Ghani

(eds), Promoting Economic Cooperation in South Asia. New Delhi: SAGE Publications, p. 259.

10.

Fitzsimons

(2021) Planning a solo trip? We need to talk about loneliness. In: HOSTELWORLD. Available at: https://www.hostelworld.com/blog/afraid-to-travel-alone/ (accessed 29 August 2021).

11.

FOO

(1999) A profile of international visitors to Australian winerie. Australia, Autumn: Report,Bureau of Tourism Research.

12.

Glaser

Strauss

(1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. NJ: Transaction Publishers.

13.

Goodwin

Lockshin

(1992) The solo consumer: unique opportunity for the service marketer. Journal of Services Marketing 6(3): 27–36.

14.

Hamid

Alvares da Silva

Burak

, et al. (2021) Solo travel and well-being amongst female: an exploratory study. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 55(1): 1–11.

15.

Heimtun

(2010) The holiday meal: eating out alone and mobile emotional geographies. Leisure Studies 29(2): 175–192.

16.

Heimtun

(2012) The friend, the loner and the independent traveller: norwegian midlife single women’s social identities when on holiday. Gender, Place and Culture 19(1): 83–101.

17.

Heimtun

Abelsen

(2013) Singles and solo travel: gender and type of holiday. Tourism Culture and Communication 13(3): 161–174.

18.

Heinrich

Gullone

(2006) The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review 26(6): 695–718.

19.

Herjanto

Chilicki

Anantamongkolkul

, et al. (2020) Hotel selection criteria of solo traveling females. ASEAN Journal on Hospitality and Tourism 18(2): 58–73.

20.

Hosseini

Macias

Garcia

(2022) The exploration of Iranian solo female travellers’ experiences. International Journal of Tourism Research 24(2): 256–269.

21.

Jin

Zhang

(2022) Solo female visitors in museum tourism: an exploration based on social practice theory. Current Issues in Tourism: 1–15.

22.

Jordan

Aitchison

(2008) Tourism and the sexualisation of the gaze: solo female tourists’ experiences of gendered power, surveillance and embodiment. Leisure Studies 27(3): 329–349.

23.

Jordan

Gibson

(2005) “We're not stupid … but we'll not stay home either”: experiences of solo women travelers. Tourism Review International 9(2): 195–211.

24.

Karagöz

Isik

Dogru

, et al. (2021) Solo female travel risks, anxiety and travel intentions: examining the moderating role of online psychological-social support. Current Issues in Tourism 24(11): 1595–1612.

25.

Kazeminia

Del Chiappa

Jafari

(2015) Seniors’ travel constraints and their coping strategies. Journal of Travel Research 54(1): 80–93.

26.

Laesser

Beritelli

Bieger

(2009) Solo travel: explorative insights from a mature market (Switzerland). Journal of Vacation Marketing 15(3): 217–227.

27.

Wen

Leung

, et al. (2011) An exploratory study of the travel motivation of Chinese female outbound tourists. Journal of China Tourism Research 7(4): 411–424.

28.

Wang

(2011) China in the eyes of western travelers as represented in travel blogs. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 28(7): 689–719.

29.

Mcintosh

(1998) Mixing methods: putting the tourist at the forefront of tourism research. Tourism Analysis 3(2): 121–127.

30.

Mehmetoglu

(2003) The Solitary Traveller: Why Do People Travel on Their Own? PhD Thesis. UK: University of Bedfordshire.

31.

Nikjoo

Markwell

Nikbin

, et al. (2021) The flag-bearers of change in a patriarchal muslim society: narratives of Iranian solo female travellers on instagram. Tourism Management Perspectives 38(100817): 1–12.

32.

Osman

Brown

Phung

TMT

(2020) The travel motivations and experiences of female vietnamese solo travellers. Tourist Studies 20(2): 248–267.

33.

Rasul

Manandhar

(2009) Prospects and problems in promoting tourism in South Asia: a regional perspective. South Asia Economic Journal 10(1): 187–207.

34.

Roehl

Fesenmaier

(1992) Risk perceptions and pleasure travel: an exploratory analysis. Journal of Travel Research 30(4): 17–26.

35.

Seow

Brown

(2018) The solo female Asian tourist. Current Issues in Tourism 21(10): 1187–1206.

36.

Small

(1999) Memory-work: a method for researching women’s tourist experiences. Tourism Management 20(1): 25–35.

37.

(2020) The dark side of solo female travel: negative encounters with male strangers. Leisure Sciences 42(3–4): 375–392.

38.

Thapa

(2004) Tourism in Nepal: shangri-la’s troubled times. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 15(2–3): 117–138.

39.

Thomas

Mura

(2019) The ‘normality of unsafety’-foreign solo female travellers in India. Tourism Recreation Research 44(1): 33–40.

40.

Valaja

(2018) Solo female travellers’ risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies - as expressed in online travel blog narratives. Master’s Thesis. Sweden: Lund University.

41.

Volo

(2010) Bloggers’ reported tourist experiences: their utility as a tourism data source and their effect on prospective tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing 16(4): 297–311.

42.

Wantono

McKercher

(2020) Backpacking and risk perception: the case of solo Asian women. Tourism Recreation Research 45(1): 19–29.

43.

Wilson

(2004) A'journey of Her Own'?: The Impact of Constraints on Female's Solo Travel. PhD Thesis. Australia: Griffith University.

44.

Wilson

Harris

(2006) Meaningful travel: women, independent travel and the search for self and meaning. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal 54(02): 161–172.

45.

Wilson

Little

(2005) A ‘relative escape’? The impact of constraints on female who travel solo. Tourism Review International 9(2): 155–175.

46.

Wilson

Little

(2008) The solo female travel experience: exploring the ‘geography of women's fear’. Current Issues in Tourism 11(2): 167–186.

47.

World Tourism Organization (2020) International Tourism Highlights: 2020 Edition. Madrid: UNWTO.

48.

Zhang

Fujiwara

(2011) Representing tourists’ heterogeneous choices of destination and travel party with an integrated latent class and nested logit model. Tourism Management 32(6): 1407–1413.

49.

Xie

(2019) Asian Female Solo Travellers. Unpublished Master's Thesis. New Zealand: Auckland University of Technology.

50.

Yang

ECL

(2021) What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of solo and non-solo travellers. Current Issues in Tourism 24(17): 2458–2471.

51.

Yang

ECL

Khoo-Lattimore

Arcodia

(2018a) Power and empowerment: How Asian solo female travellers perceive and negotiate risks. Tourism Management 68: 32–45.

52.

Yang

ECL

Khoo-Lattimore

Arcodia

(2018b) Constructing space and self through risk taking: a case of asian solo female travelers. Journal of Travel Research 57(2): 260–272.

53.

Yang

ECL

Nimri

Lai

(2022) Uncovering the critical drivers of solo holiday attitudes and intentions. Tourism Management Perspectives 41: 100913–101011.

54.

Yang

ECL

Yang

MJH

Khoo-Lattimore

(2019) The meanings of solo travel for Asian women. Tourism Review 74(5): 1047–1057.