Abstract
This paper sets out to explore the thinking underpinning young children’s earliest drawings, often regarded as ‘scribbling.’ It questions whether the physical satisfaction of making marks is sufficient reward for this often repeated activity, or whether with each repetition children intend deeper meanings not apparent to the eyes of the adult beholder. The narrative, which frequently accompanies such drawings, indicates that far from being merely a mark-making activity, the scribbled work represents for children a means of communicating a story or an experience. Examination of the dual activity of drawing and talking forms the basis of a research study which highlights the contribution that observation can make towards our understanding of young children’s learning.
Whilst not all children apply themselves to the activity of scribbling with equal vigour, early-years educators tend to agree that it is a necessary part of their development, both artistically and cognitively (Bhroin, 2007; Matthews, 1999). Indeed, Kress (1997) hypothesises that at this stage the drawing stands for both print and image as the child’s storytelling and visual imagery is subsumed into a single multi-layered scribble, whilst Kellogg and O’Dell (1967) stress how difficult it is for an adult to appreciate ‘the wealth of structured, non-pictorial work which children teach themselves before they pictorialize’(p. 37). It would seem that the domination of cognitive development is such that it is rare for children’s drawings to be valued until some form of visual realism can be discerned. It is at this stage that adults start to take notice and the appearance of an image with a semblance of reality is greeted with praise, not only as an indication that a developmental milestone has been reached, but also because the adult can recognize something tangible as the basis for a question or conversation. This ploy, however, does not recognize the learning that has taken place, nor the value of observing children in action, as the intensity with which some children apply themselves to the act of scribbling would seem to indicate a depth of thinking which extends far beyond meaningless doodling.
Our research into young children’s drawings and accompanying narratives (Coates and Coates, 2006, 2011, 2015) suggests that a more fruitful response to the work would be to listen carefully to what the children said they were expressing as their pictures unfolded, as the narrative which frequently accompanied the activity revealed aspects of their experiences variously gathered and richly told. Over a five-year period, upwards of 220 children were studied, their ages ranging from three to seven years. Forty-seven children made scribble drawings at some stage and more than 200 examples were collected. These aroused our interest, for having been present whilst they were produced and having transcribed the recordings made during each activity, it became apparent that far more than merely exploring mark-making was taking place.
Listening to children as they draw, whilst helping the adult understand the thinking taking place, also reveals the imaginative play in which the child is involved. Drawing, even at the scribble stage, enables children to enter a realm of fantasy as they become characters from stories or other media outlets, taking the level of their play beyond what is possible in the real world. David (1999) suggests that in play children are testing out their ideas and knowledge. This is extended by Wood and Hall (2011) who feel that drawing is often part of play, whilst our research found that children were continuing their role-play into their drawings, raising it to a level not possible in the physical setting (Coates and Coates, 2006, 2011). The function of drawing, in this instance, was as an integral part of play, for the accompanying dialogue illustrated how storytelling and drawing were interwoven. Perhaps this interweaving of story and drawing can be seen more clearly in the works of children who have progressed beyond the scribbling stage, but scribbling pictures, together with an accompanying narrative, demonstrates an enthusiasm and a need, to communicate. It would seem that many children, rather than aimlessly wafting the drawing tool over the surface of the paper have reasons for making decisions and juxtaposing various elements and colours together to make what is both a visually pleasing and dynamic picture. The surety with which many of these were produced points to a deliberate process as circles, zigzags and spirals overlap to form complex compositions. There seemed to be a purpose or ‘picture’ in the child’s mind, an attempt, perhaps, to communicate that is similar to the babbling of young children as they seek to interact with those around them. Grozinger calls such scribblings ‘letters that children write to themselves’ (1955, p. 29) whilst Vygotsky (cited in Hope (2008: 57) regards these early drawings as a form of graphic speech. If this is the case, the developmental aspects of this activity achieve significance and should be considered alongside the end product. Certainly the notion of communication presupposes the development of thinking since decisions need to be made about what is being communicated, whilst imagination enables children to recall aspects of their perceived world as they attempt to represent them. Matthews (2003) stresses the role of language in helping organize a drawing and we found echoes of this in almost every scribbling instance as children used talk to inform, explore and express their ideas.
All our data were collected in educational settings with pairs of children rather than with individuals (for full details of the methodology employed see Coates and Coates, 2006) as our previous experience, both as educators and researchers, led us to the understanding that the quality of data collected when working with young children depended upon them feeling at ease. We employed, therefore, the technique of grouping often used when interviewing young children. The investigation was open-ended and the direction, content and duration of each episode were largely determined by the children. They were supplied with drawing media and asked to make images of subjects of their own choice. The children’s teachers were not involved as the researchers worked with the children, immersing themselves in the context in which the drawings were being made, not as detached observers but as participant observers, playing an active part in the children’s conversations, and acting as a focus for their questions and insights when the need arose (Coates and Coates, 2006, 2011, 2015). Most of the dialogue which accompanied the drawing episodes, however, was between the children. Such dialogue together with the finished scribble pictures provided a rich source of information not only about the way they were completed but also about the thinking underpinning the development of the drawings. Our presence throughout was also important in that it provided an understanding of the context in which their works were produced. Jolley (2010) points to the significance of the researcher’s direct observation, when he states that this ‘may provide us with a new theoretical framework for understanding children’s development in the twenty-first century’ (p. 318). The hypothesis that children’s scribbling has purpose, content and meaning, as they move beyond Hall’s (1917: 514) ‘quiddle’ stage of pure physical enjoyment, the magical process when children discover that they can make something appear on paper which was not there before, forms the basis of our discussion and analysis.
Attitudes to scribbling in the literature on drawing development
Scribbling, as an area in its own right, receives little attention in the literature. Kellogg’s seminal work, What Children Scribble and Why (1955), was produced initially as a ‘vanity’ publication, although it was produced commercially in 1959 and is widely referenced. This, and her second publication, Analysing Children’s Art, first published in 1969, are still the most important works to address the area seriously. Other publications, such as Gardner’s Artful Scribbles (1980) and Grozinger’s Scribbling, Drawing and Painting (translated into English in 1955), whilst including the term in the title, address the area as part of a wider examination of children’s art. The main literature, however, is drawn from three different sources: psychologists, art educators and early years educators, each with a different point of view and perhaps understandable bias, and the examination of these sources provides a wide and thought-provoking base against which to discuss our findings.
There is consensus amongst the psychologists whose work we accessed (from Sully, 1896 to Jolley, 2010) that the earliest scribbles are the result of physical actions, the enjoyment of muscular movements which leave traces on a surface. Anning and Ring (2004), Hall (2009) and Wright (2010, 2011) regard such physical trace-making as natural to the young child, an instinctive response likened by Hall to babbling. Certainly for very young children it would seem it is the movement that is important, with the resulting marks appearing to be almost incidental. Alland (1983), in his study of children from six cultures, calls this domination of motor activity over the production of visual patterns Kinetic Scribbling. This term is significant since it does not negate the importance of the visual result. Once children begin to make connections between actions and marks, however, Hall (1917) suggests they enter what he regards as the scribble stage. It is at this point that educators become interested, and although some concede that scribbling is an important and constructive period of exploration and development (Gaitskell and Hurwitz, 1975; Jameson, 1968; Morgan, 1988), there is a tendency to regard its function merely as a way of developing marks and achieving physical control as a pre-requisite for work at the next level of symbolic representation (Lindstrom, 1957; Melzi, 1967). This notion of mark-making echoes the views of those who see this stage as a prerequisite for writing rather than acknowledging its vital role in children’s expressive and imaginative development, thereby frequently relegating the activity to the level of time-filler. Some (Dyson, 1993; Kress, 1997; Pahl, 1999) suggest that to the young child ‘writing might even be drawing, as the child “draws” a story or “writes” a page of looped lines’ (Pahl, 1999: 56). In England this mixed message about the relationship between writing and drawing is reinforced by government guidelines which Hall (2009) believes provide contradictory views about the value of drawing, on the one hand seeing it as a means of communicating ideas, feelings and experiences, whilst on the other regarding it as mark-making and a preparation for writing. Wright (2010, 2011), however, feels that the act of drawing is much more than a pre-writing skill, for her research has led to the belief that it helps children to gather thoughts and represent ideas as a form of visual storytelling which later supports the child’s transition to a more formal understanding of both literacy and numeracy. This reflects the English government's document ‘Markmaking Matters’, which is of the opinion that the dual combination of drawing and talking plays an essential part in the development of children’s thinking, reasoning and problem-solving (DCSF, 2008). Teachers, however, often see this earliest form of drawing not as a form of communication, but as a form of expression, the end product of which is invariably ignored (Kellogg, 1955; Kress, 1997). Likewise, the majority of art educators pay little attention to children’s early scribblings, since the focus of most of their publications is on the older child, in England children over seven years who are entering Key Stage Two of the National Curriculum. Indeed most children will have passed the scribbling stage by the time they reach compulsory school age (in England five years of age) and many teachers would not recognize these early drawings as an important part of a young child’s development in art.
The most damning rejection of the contribution that scribbling can make to children’s learning is made by Barnes (2002), who reduces its status to an activity which is repeated merely for fun, and when, occasionally, images such as of people, boats and houses appear, they are found accidently. He is particularly critical of children’s integrity and accuses them of inventing subjects, even when none exist, to satisfy adult curiosity. It is not surprising that adults are incapable of recognizing children’s subjects in their scribbles, but if his assertion is credible it negates the possibility that children, at this stage, are capable of making informed decisions based on experience, as well as signifying their intentions. On the other hand, however, Morgan (1988) discusses the way that young children become engrossed in this activity, developing ideas and laying the foundation for the enhancement of language and writing skills. The development of this sense of dignity or self-worth is of paramount importance if young children are to develop the confidence freely to express their ideas and feelings. If scribbling is not valued, therefore, this message will inevitably be conveyed to young children through the attitude of those around them. As Bland (1968) stresses, ‘the child needs respect in order to go forward with confidence in what he has to say and in his mastery of the means to say it’ (p. 48).
Sully (1896), one of the first psychologists to examine the drawings of young children, saw these early attempts as a kind of play. His largely dismissive attitude towards the quality of the scribbled outcomes, however, should be considered in context for it was not until the 1930s that the contribution of play to the intellectual and social development of the young child was fully realized and integrated into the child-centred early-years curriculum (Bruce, 1991). Sully’s notion of play is reinforced by later studies, for Arnheim (1956) refers to the child’s need for constant movement when drawing as ‘gamboling on paper’ (p. 136) and Egan (1999), whilst mainly referring to the spoken word, stresses the importance of the sounds which may accompany such ‘gamboling’ saying that they are ‘alive and participatory … charged with the direct energy of the speaker’s body’ (p. 19).
It is suggested by Stern (1924) that the awakening interest in the marks produced at this early stage is not because they are intended to be representational but because of the satisfaction of creation. Alland (1983) feels that children are, in a sense, playing with form, which eventually leads to a satisfaction with the marks made and a desire to repeat them. His theory that ‘certain aesthetic principles (what might be called “good form”) are universal and coded in the human brain’ (p. 2) is reiterated by Matthews (2003), who feels that young children’s drawings are ‘guided by an aesthetic sense, involving feelings and intuitions about harmony, balance, composition and design’ (p. 68). Such thinking provided a basis for discussion when conducting our analysis, emphasizing the significance of studying the narrative alongside the drawings. This is supported by Atkinson (2009) who questions Lowenfeld’s and Brittain’s (1970) contention that during the ‘scribble’ stage (2–4 years) children are not making any representational responses in their drawings (cited in Atkinson, 2009: 143). Willats (2004), whilst acknowledging that children’s earliest scribbles may not be truly representational, draws upon Luquet’s ‘fortuitous realism’ category (p. 160), stating that at some point the child recognizes an image in the scribble and seeks to repeat this. Although Luquet (1927/2001) does not use the term ‘scribbling’ but calls it ‘trace making’ throughout his writing, his category relates to the child perceiving a resemblance to an object which is subsequently named. He suggests that ‘the child is well aware of its imperfections and thus naturally tries to produce a better resemblance’ (p. 89). Such resemblances may have their roots in the variety of lines the child produces as a result of kinetic scribbling, and many psychologists refer to loops, zigzags, horizontal and vertical lines in their studies of children’s drawings (Lowenfeld, 1939; Strauss, 2007; Sully, 1896; Willats, 2004). This is the stage Burt (1962) refers to as purposive pencilling when children seek to repeat the likeness they have named and so begin to move towards representation. At this point the relevance of observing the young child in action becomes more obvious since not only can a researcher note the way a scribble is built in layers or patches (Willats, 2004), but it is also possible to follow the child’s train of thought as either the intention to draw an object is announced at the start of the drawing or an idea occurs as the drawing progresses (Lowenfeld, 1939; Luquet, 1927/2001). Jackson (1994, cited in Matthews, 1999: 94) calls the language a child uses whilst drawing ‘a window on consciousness’, enabling the listener to gain some understanding of the thought process underlying the representation. Without the insights provided by such utterances, any attempt at analysing the scribble drawing of a child at Burt’s purposive pencilling stage can only be partially successful, since the level of representation inevitably falls far below the image in the child’s eye.
The following section focuses upon the images produced by the children in our research sample, involving identifying different stages of scribbling as a precursor to an examination of the children’s social and cultural understanding.
The stages of scribbling as identified through our research
Since all drawing sessions took place within education settings, our expectation was that the number of scribble drawings produced would be low. This proved to be far from the truth as 200 of the 800 drawings were identified as scribbles. An examination of these showed a variation in stages from Hall’s ‘wigwagging’ (1917: 549), a means of developing hand-eye coordination, through purposeless play, to a transitional stage leading to symbolic representation. These drawings, therefore, were categorized as follows:
basic scribbles – drawing for its own sake; scribbling as a means of representation as evidenced by language; the transition to symbolic representation.
A discussion of the characteristics of the drawings in relation to these categories forms the basis of this section. Our analysis was informed by Kellogg’s (1955) 20 basic scribbles and scribble mixtures which she found occurred over and over again in her study of young children’s drawings. She regarded the mastering of these 20 scribbles as supremely important since she felt that, once learnt, the child would have ‘ … acquired the basic markings out of which all subsequent drawing or painting will be developed for the rest of their lives’ (p. 14). At this point it should be emphasized that whilst all drawings displayed elements of her 20 basic scribbles, each one was considered separately and placed in what was felt to be the most appropriate of our categories.
Basic scribbles – Drawing for its own sake
Atkinson (2009) raises a question: when we scrutinize a scribble drawing, recognising only drawn lines and blocks of colour, how do we know that the child is not attempting to represent something? The defining characteristic of this category was either the absence of language as the children drew, or the language used related only to technical aspects such as colour or line. It was impossible to know whether there were other motivations besides physical pleasure. What became increasingly clear as indicated by our field notes was that most of these scribbles were completed in a short time span and evidenced a lack of concentration, suggesting the children were not fully engaged. These drawings, therefore, could only be examined as basic scribbles. Perhaps unsurprisingly, given the age of our sample, we found only five instances where a child’s drawing consisted of a single scribble. Much more common was Kellogg’s notion of combinations of these (scribble mixtures), for 35 drawings consisted of several different types of scribbles and a further 17 fell into her category of diagrams and scribbles as a line was drawn round a set of scribble mixtures.
George’s (3:11) drawing (Figure 1) was a prime example of a scribble mixture as he started by selecting a black pen and drew a long continuous line starting at the bottom right-hand corner and curving round the edges of the paper before turning towards the centre. He then took a blue pen and drew a line inside the black one, before taking an orange pen to complete his drawing. No language accompanied the activity which was completed in less than 3 minutes.
George (3:11) A scribble mixture.
Scribbling as a means of representation as evidenced by language
In this category our observations of the drawing process confirmed the importance of language, for the majority of the children talked as they drew, sometimes naming what they intended to draw before starting and sometimes naming it on completion. The children who named what they intended to draw fell into two camps – those who kept to the same idea throughout (16 children) and those who changed their minds as the drawing progressed (12 children). Cox (2005) suggests that this narrative is essential in helping the onlooker understand ‘both the meaning and necessity of the marks’ (p. 120). Abigail (3: 10) illustrated this by explaining each stage of her drawing, starting by making a curved ‘road’ in purple around the edge of the paper, adding green (centre of paper) to show ‘the moon shining on the road.’ The pink zigzag lines drawn in a circular motion around the edge of the paper are bridges, ‘A bridge to get over the stream. I’ve done lots of bridges so people can get over the stream and a bridge in the middle. I’ve really done the bridge cos people can get over the river.’ Having drawn the sun with rays in a corner of the paper, Abigail moved to the centre where she had drawn the green moonshine. She then explained that the vertical purple lines were rain: ‘That’s rain and the sun is there. I’m mixing up the green to make it not dark anymore cos it’s sunny. It’s sunny and rainy over there.’ She then added purple to the green to indicate the rain and sun together (Figure 2).
Abigail (3:10) ‘The moon shining on the road.’
The transition to symbolic representation
At some point during the scribbling stage, children will see amongst the lines a resemblance to an object or figure and will seek to repeat this representation over and over again. This is the phase that Luquet (1927/2001) refers to as ‘fortuitous realism’ (pp. 85–92), the chance likeness to something the child recognizes and therefore names. As the child repeats the shape it is refined until, given the clues contained in the narrative, elements can be identified. Close scrutiny of our collection of scribble drawings and narratives revealed that the work of 18 children fell into this transition stage, for whilst their pictures were predominantly scribbles they also contained recognizable images such as faces, tadpole people and suns.
One of the most intriguing transition drawings, however, was made by James (4:6) (Figure 3). His initial intention was to draw ‘dough’, beginning with two curved lines on the left-hand side of his page. This was followed by a strong black line which mirrored the shape of the outer one before curving across the page. At this point James recognized the shape he had produced saying, ‘Mmm, that’s a beak!’ and as if to reinforce this realization he drew a black circle with a red dot in the middle, perhaps as an eye. This was followed by the red zigzag at the top of the picture leading from the line forming the beak. All this was drawn with great deliberation and he then identified his image as a ‘cockerel.’ A reversion to his original idea followed. Both James and his friend chose two pens and drew continuous swirling lines as James announced ‘I’m going to make dough, William.’ The element of competition continued as they raced to see who could colour the fastest until William said ‘We’re both as fast as each other, aren’t we.’ James completed his drawing, but on looking at it he realized that he had omitted the feet saying, ‘Oh, no I haven’t put the feet on,’ as he hastily added them. Although the completed picture is recognizable as a cockerel, it needs to be examined closely in order to ascertain this. Without the observation notes and narrative, this transition element could easily have been missed and James’s moment of recognition would have passed unnoticed.
James (4:6) ‘A cockerel.’
The significance of spoken language as a means by which the content of young children’s scribble drawings can be better understood
The literature tends to dismiss the role of scribbling in the expressive and cognitive development of the young child and ignores the possibilities that dialogue might offer, preferring to focus on the physical aspects of development. If we accept the premise that the act of scribbling is relevant to the development of hand–eye co-ordination and fine motor control, then how can we disregard narrative’s contribution to our understanding of children’s expressive and cognitive development? Our research highlights the central role that spoken language plays as a means by which children’s thinking may be known and therefore examined and analysed.
The following discussion explores how listening to children’s narratives both informed and enhanced the researchers’ understanding of the process and their interpretation of the finished work. Not only does this narrative act as an accompaniment to the drawing activity, but in many cases it shapes the way the drawing progresses, since as Matthews (2003) suggests children provide detailed commentaries, often to themselves, about what they are doing and where they are going. Indeed such commentaries, similar to the narratives accompanying representational drawings, illustrate different aspects of children’s understanding of the socio world which they inhabit. These are discussed under the following categories:
scribbling as a focus for social interaction; scribbling in relation to themes from the media; kinetic activity.
Scribbling as a focus for social interaction
Since our research involved children working in pairs, some form of social interaction was anticipated. It was often stimulated by the marks each child made, with the children frequently commenting on each other’s images, asking questions, responding to the subject matter and making suggestions about the way forward. Boyatzis and Albertini (2000) refer to the significance of copying, suggesting that children may be ‘inspired by or directly imitate a peer’s thematic content, technical features and meaning’ (p. 44). In our study both children often became immersed in the story being revealed in one of the drawings. This was the case in the dialogue between Heather (4:3) and Mae (4:6) as Mae started to draw ‘a pink dolphin’ and Heather copied and extended the idea (Figure 4).
Heather (4:3) ‘This is a smiley dolphin.’
M: ‘This is a pink dolphin. This is a smiley dolphin … It’s a funny dolphin but it’s got a funny mouth.’
H: ‘Yes, cos it’s a smiley mouth. This is his mouth (refers to own drawing). It is a little mouth. Yes, it’s a smiley one. Now I need … .’
M: ‘Bet it’s a big one.’
H: ‘Yes … no … this one’s a baby one.’
Whilst Mae’s drawing had moved beyond the scribbling stage, Heather’s consisted mainly of multiple vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines using a variety of colours including the pink and orange mentioned in the following narrative.
H: ‘And this is – oh no! – the dolphin’s trapped. Oops, now the mummy dolphin needs to come and rescue him … I need some grey. This is the line for the path. There that’s the nose. Oh I think there can be … that’s the spot … that’s a dot and that’s those. That’s the thing to do down, all the way down … I think that’s the path as well. These are the path, that’s the path as well (black roving lines). These go down there. I don’t know what this is going to be ….’
Mae and Heather continued drawing and talking as Heather put orange on her pink dolphin ‘cos he loves orange,’ finally finishing by explaining to the researcher that: ‘that’s the pink dolphin as well and that’s the orange one … that’s the duck, the orange duck. Think that’s the swan. That’s a nanar (?) opening all by itself (laughs). There’s nobody opening it. Maybe this is the line of the path. I’m done.’
Although it may seem that Mae’s spoken contribution was small, it stimulated the subject matter and consequently Heather’s drawing and storyline. Cox (2005) in her observations of two children drawing together found similar reactions as they responded to each other’s marks and topics of conversation. Her notion that such children were ‘conversing’ through the drawings (p.118) as well as through the spoken word is one that our findings support, as we frequently found evidence of this in the representational drawings collected. However, in the scribble drawings, it was the spoken word that was most influential. Such influence was commented upon by Engel (1995) who, when writing about children’s stories, found that peers provided feedback on what might improve a story by asking questions or suggesting additions, whilst Jolley (2010) cites the work of Yamagata who found that social interaction had a significant role to play in the sequential development of subject matter.
Scribbling as an extension of role-play in relation to themes from the media
Cox (2005) suggests that children use drawing to help them define reality and create a sense of order, as they attempt to come to terms with the complexities of their experiences of the media. Egan (1999) points out that in the digital age children’s environments incorporate books, television, video, DVD and computers as well as families, local environments and communities, and suggests that imaginative play can reflect all of these. Such an idea is extended by Marsh (2005), who feels that these provide a bridge between ‘real’ and imagined worlds. Hanna (4:4) and Freya (4:6) drew upon this imagined world in their pictures of ‘vampires’ and ‘goblins.’ Their dialogue was in the form of a story as they included references to ghosts and ‘baddies’, providing an example of drawing being used as an extension of fantasy play.
The narrative which accompanied Cain’s (5:5) drawing of ‘A Black Ranger’ (a character in Power Rangers, a film and children’s television series) provided strong evidence of the influence of the media. The drawing consisted of a grid in pencil on which were superimposed four sets of multiple horizontal lines, two in pencil and two in green felt-tip pen, surmounted by multiple diagonal lines in brown (Figure 5). The subject was clearly defined from the outset: ‘I’m drawing a Black Ranger, the Dawn and Thunder One … I mean the Power Rangers one, the Black Ranger and the Dawn ones on the front … It’s a D.V.D. and its got a Power Ranger’s face.’ The brown scribble was identified as: ‘That’s the gun what shoots, a big gun, a big, big gun … It’s a gun on a tank, they shoot bullets … and a Bren gun … .’ On completion, however, Cain examined the result and said in a disillusioned voice: ‘Doesn’t look like a Tank really, do it? It’s not finished, I just want to swop over to start again.’ His disappointment with the end result reflected, perhaps, a dawning realization that his scribbles were insufficient to represent the objects in his imagination, but the excitement with which he talked about his subject matter revealed knowledge and understanding which far outstripped his ability to invent credible symbols.
Cain (5:5) ‘A black ranger.’
Kinetic activity: The graphic representation of actions and the use of body language as an extension of play
Fox (cited in Hall and Martello, 1996) discusses how a child moves from making gestures when describing or enacting something, to representing that action in scribbles and drawings. In our research there were two types of activity that could be described as kinetic. The first relates to the way that young children’s drawings reflect movement as scribbles whirl, zigzag and stutter across the page. Wright (2007) refers to these as ‘action lines’, a graphic device to indicate movement (p. 15). Andrew (3:6) (Figure 6) drew a track with an engine running along it saying, ‘that’s the track, that’s the engine,’ indicated by short vertical lines and a long horizontal one. A series of dots represented the movement of the engine whilst a vertical line was the ‘smoke coming out of the chimney.’ Dyson (1993) talks about the importance of adults listening to the meanings of these early ‘action drawings' and it was certainly the case that it was only Andrew’s narrative which made it possible to identify them.
Andrew (3:6) ‘That’s the track, that’s the engine.’
The second form of kinetic activity was a more physical one as children’s body language aligned with their oral language to create a scribble which was an extension of role or fantasy play (Bhroin, 2007; Wright, 2010). Thus, Wolf and Perry (cited in Cox, 1992: 18) describe the crashing noises made by a child as she increased the speed of the tangled lines she drew saying ‘Car going, going, going, CRASH!’ Matthews (1999) suggests that this link between utterances and movement across the paper could be a form of ‘writing the sounds’ (p. 32). Although there were a number of instances, in our research, of children continuing play episodes or re-enacting actual experiences, many of these related to representational drawings. There were, however, some examples of this type of kinetic activity within the scribble narratives. Luke (4:6) and his friend Martin (3:11) started by drawing boomerangs, a theme that they had followed on a previous occasion. Following Martin’s mention of dot-to-dot pictures, Luke began to sing ‘dot, dot, dot, dotty, dotty, dotty’ as he made his pen leap across the page as a series of dots saying ‘I’m making tracks now.’ After a slight digression to discuss how to write the letter ‘L’ Luke returned to the idea of making tracks, this time using pink dots and singing ‘Dot, dot, dotty, dotty, dot, dot, Doctor Who, Doctor Who, dot, dot,’ before saying, ‘I’m making tracks, I am.’ After looking at his friend Martin’s (3.11) drawing of boomerangs, he incorporated these making whooshing noises as he did so, lifting his pen at each ‘whoosh’ (Figure 7).
Luke (4:6) ‘I’m making tracks.’
Conclusions and recommendations
Our findings challenge the mindset of many working with young children who feel that scribbling is only valuable as a precursor to writing. It was obvious from the length of time many of our children spent on their drawings, the care with which they made each mark and the thoughtfulness with which they selected colours that the act of scribbling was personally significant. It is essential, therefore, that adults respond to the seriousness with which children undertake this activity and show that they understand and value not only the end product but also the process of thinking, conceptualizing, problem-solving and decision-making which has led to its successful completion. The following conclusions and recommendations are based upon data which confirm our belief that drawing is fundamental to young children’s development and include recommendations for those working with young children. These are outlined under the following subheadings:
the status of children’s narrative; the significance of the scribbling stage; the role of interaction and observation during the scribbling process; responding to children’s work.
The status of children’s narrative
The essence of this project was to explore how children’s narrative made it possible for adults to come to understand the meaning and conceptual richness of scribbled drawings, which would normally be unavailable. Throughout, therefore, we have focused on the role of narrative and emphasized the importance of according it a high status in educational settings. Our findings demonstrate that the rich language accompanying young children’s scribble drawings reveals a breadth of understanding and thinking which goes far beyond the surface level of the image itself. The data reflect the children’s need to communicate with detailed commentaries about what they are doing and where they are going, which provide insights not only into the organization of the drawing but also into the child’s cultural understanding of the world. Thus, we found Hanna (4:4) and Freya (4:6) showing their awareness of the media with their pictures of ‘vampires’ and ‘goblins.’ Their dialogue, which explored the nature of these creatures by entering into a form of fantasy play, supports Bhroin (2007) who makes connections between art, play and fantasy, seeing the child using drawing as a medium for extending play into the realms of the imagination. The intensity of this involvement is reflected by the kinetic activity of some of our research sample as their drawings were accompanied by gestures, whoops and cries, such as Luke’s (4:6) whooshing boomerangs (see Figure 7). Such activity confirms the research findings of Wright (2011) and Dyson (1993) who both highlight the significance of such total immersion as an indication of the depth of children’s thinking. At a time when the requirement, at least in England, is for early-years professionals constantly to assess young children, the narrative accompanying their drawing provides evidence of achievement across a range of developmental areas.
The significance of the scribbling stage
Our examination of the scribble drawings in relation to the literature led to the conclusion that most of the children were in the advanced scribbling stage, since they largely incorporated Kellogg’s (1959) scribble mixtures in their work. Their actions were deliberate and often signalled by a statement of intention relating either to the selection of colours or to particular images. This level is significant in that it illustrates the movement away from mark-making for its own sake to an awareness that marks may also be used for representation. This should transform our thinking about scribbling in relation to its potential as a form of graphic speech (Vygotsky, cited in Hope, 2008). Heather’s (4:3) drawing of dolphins consists of multiple vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines but her identification of each dolphin by its colour shows an intention to communicate a storyline through her picture (see Figure 4).
The place of interaction and observation during the scribbling process
The potential of drawing as a social activity is one which influenced the design of our research and stemmed from our experience of working with and observing young children over many years. The verbal commentary, which frequently accompanied the drawing, intensified when more than one child participated as ideas were exchanged, avenues explored and suggestions made. Acting as participant observers proved fascinating, for although we were absorbed in making notes and recording the conversation, occasionally we were drawn into the discussion either to answer questions or to approve ideas. From our observations it was obvious that for many children, but not all, the essence of this activity was the way that talk and drawing interacted with each other ‘as parallel and mutually transformative processes’ (Cox, 2005: 123). It is important, therefore, that in an educational setting where professionals are generally only conversant with the child’s reactions to the resources provided and their interplay with other children, the critical insights offered by listening to and closely observing a drawing activity must be stressed.
Responding to children’s work
Taking children’s work seriously, whatever the subject or type of activity, is extremely important if they are to feel that their efforts are respected and highly regarded. Communication between adults and children includes listening to what they are saying, respecting their intellectual integrity and reinforcing that scribbling is regarded as an exciting, serious and stimulating activity. Although there were a few children in our research sample who were entirely uninterested in drawing, the vast majority entered into the activity with enthusiasm. Watching and listening to these children made the observer aware of their depth of understanding, and their commitment to the activity was often overwhelming. It may be difficult for the professional in an educational setting to recognize the content in these non-representational drawings, particularly when other children demand their attention, but time spent talking to children about their pictures and actively recognizing the seriousness with which they have approached the task can be repaid handsomely as they blossom and approach each new activity with added confidence. What our research tells us is that if children are allowed to make decisions about subject matter rather than having it dictated, the depth of their involvement increases significantly.
As adults we sometimes have a problem responding to a child’s scribble, even though we have observed their progress. Matthews (2003) suggests that we need to learn to see, to understand the thinking behind each change of colour and each varying shape. If we do this, he says, we will know what to say. This came across strongly in our research for the children involved us in their deliberations, not expecting us to tell them what to do but informing us of their decisions, asking opinions and taking time to consider our responses in a way similar to the responses of their peers. In most cases the completed picture appeared to satisfy the child who often declared it was ‘finished’ before embarking on another one. The conviction on a child’s face indicated that there was a ‘rightness’ or ‘balance’ to the drawing, which excluded further additions. This aspect of our study led us to question the way some professionals treat children’s art works, and as Matthews (2003) opines, ‘It is grossly insensitive to manipulate and interfere with children’s work, [by] sticking things on it, cutting it up, repainting it and generally communicating to the child that their efforts are inadequate’ (p. 139). Having seen the care with which children produce their drawings we can only concur.
Finally
Our research into scribbling has highlighted the significant role that this activity plays in children’s development and emphasized the importance of the accompanying narrative. This article sets out to examine our findings, reflecting upon their contribution to the existing pool of knowledge. Our conclusions have been discussed throughout and their value for those working with young children considered. These are summarized as follows:
the rich language accompanying young children’s scribble drawings reveals a breadth of understanding and thinking which goes far beyond the surface level of the image itself; young children possess a facility with language which outstrips their representational ability. Their need, therefore, to name things and begin to tell stories and describe experiences is fundamental as a requirement for learning development; spoken language plays a central role as a means by which children’s thinking may be known and therefore examined and analysed; listening to children’s narrative can both inform and enhance the observer’s understanding of the developing process and their interpretation of the finished product; communication between adult and children includes listening to what they are saying, respecting their intellectual integrity and regarding scribbling as an exciting and stimulating activity; the detailed commentaries children provide about what they are doing and where they are going is essential to their thinking; narrative reveals different aspects of children’s understanding of the social and cultural world which they inhabit and enables the observer to begin to make sense of the thinking underpinning their drawings; it is important to recognise the potential of drawing as a social activity, as peers provided feedback on what might improve a story by asking questions or suggesting additions, whilst social interaction often had a significant role to play in the development of subject matter; scribbling is used as an extension of fantasy play; children move from making gestures when describing or enacting something to representing that action in early scribbles and drawings; the final part of the scribbling stage is significant as it marks a movement away from mark-making for its own sake to an awareness that marks can be used for representation.