Abstract
Cultural intelligence (CQ) has received considerable research attention in studies on expatriates. However, most of the studies on this have been conducted on business expatriates, neglecting other types of expatriates, such as self-initiated expatriate academics. The growing number of expatriate academics taking up faculty positions in universities in an upper middle-income economy, like Malaysia, which is known for its complex cultural, racial, and religious diversity, has posed greater challenges to human resource managers of the respective universities. This study aims to examine the direct and indirect effects of CQ on work engagement (WE) with the presence of psychological needs satisfaction (PNS) as a mediating factor. Using a sample of 152 expatriate academics employed in 20 Malaysian public universities, it is found that PNS partially mediates the relationship between CQ and WE. In other words, the relationship between CQ and WE is both direct and indirect and mediated through PNS. The findings give rise to a number of implications, both theoretical and practical, in cross-cultural management research.
In the era of globalization, the self-relocation of expatriate academics to universities all over the world has become a common phenomenon. This is partly due to the effects of liberalization and internationalization of the higher education sector in many parts of the world, creating job opportunities for expatriate academics to explore the possibility of international relocation. Furthermore, the inclusion of internationalization as one of the criteria for ranking universities by several university ranking agencies has further accelerated the recruitment of expatriate academics. This has been the case in Malaysia as well. With the aim of becoming a regional education hub by 2020, the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia encourages Malaysian public universities to increase their visibility and competitive advantage in the ever changing higher education market. Heeding the call by the Ministry, several Malaysian public universities have successfully obtained reputable international accreditations, such as the Association of MBAs and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, to name a few, which apply to academic programs and even the university as a whole. Some of the Malaysian universities also have been ranked by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings in their annual world university rankings exercises. All these internationalization efforts have resulted in an increasing number of expatriate academics taking up faculty positions in Malaysian universities. Against this backdrop, it is clear that the country should expect an influx of expatriate academics in years to come and gear itself up to manage these internationally mobile academic professionals.
Predictors of expatriate effectiveness have been well documented in international human resource management literature. One such predictor that has received considerable research attention is the concept of cultural intelligence (CQ), which refers to a person’s capability to function effectively in culturally diverse contexts (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008). In other words, it reflects one’s capability to successfully navigate through a new cultural environment (Ang, Van Dyne et al., 2015). CQ may represent a valuable cross-cultural skill leading to positive outcomes among expatriates (Barakat et al., 2015). Despite this development, most of the studies regarding CQ have been conducted on organizational expatriates and self-initiated expatriates in nonacademic settings. With a few exceptions, the predictive ability of CQ on expatriate academics’ work outcomes still remains unclear in countries, like Malaysia, which is known for its complex cultural, racial, and religious diversity (Kaboudarahangi et al., 2013).
Furthermore, the understanding of the direct and indirect effects of CQ on workplace outcomes may not be comprehensive enough, without assessing one important affective outcome, namely psychological needs satisfaction (PNS) attained during international assignments in a diverse cultural environment, like Malaysia. Drawing from the self-determination theory (SDT) of Deci and Ryan (2000) and Ryan and Deci (2000), we argue that all expatriate academics, regardless of their culture and experience, have a set of innate basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) that have to be satisfied for their overall positive growth, development, and well-being (Chen et al., 2015; Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Studies have found dissatisfaction with psychological needs undermines motivation and leads to reduced adjustment and well-being (Chen et al., 2015; Church et al., 2012; Van den Broeck et al., 2008; Vansteenkiste et al., 2006).
Adding further to the gap in CQ literature, existing studies examining the outcomes of CQ have been limited to the assessment of cross-cultural adjustment, job performance, and intention to complete the assignment. With the motivation to expand the scope of the applicability of CQ in expatriate academic outcomes, this study aims to examine the indirect effect of CQ on work engagement (WE), an attitudinal outcome which has been gaining research attention of late (Bakker and Schaufeli, 2008). In the domestic setting, WE has been associated with positive organizational behavior, such as in-role and extra-role performance (Halbesleben and Wheeler, 2008); job satisfaction (Ramos and Almeida, 2017); and negatively related to withdrawal behavior (Schaufeli et al., 2009). Unlike literature in the domestic context, research regarding WE among expatriate academics is scarce. Researchers, such as Selmer and Lauring (2016) and Lauring and Selmer (2015), have studied the outcomes of WE on various workplace behaviors among expatriate academics. Selmer and Lauring (2016), for example, in their study of expatriate academics residing in China, found that the dimension of WE has a positive relationship with job, interaction, and general adjustment, suggesting the importance of work attitude, like WE, in predicting affective outcomes among expatriate academics. Lauring and Selmer (2015), on the other hand, found physical engagement predicts work performance of academic expatriates in their study among 102 expatriate academics residing in Singapore. To this end, it would be a worthwhile endeavor to study WE among expatriate academics residing in Malaysia.
Hence, the aim of this study is to examine the indirect effect of CQ on WE, mediated through PNS. One reason why this is important is that while CQ has been associated with various expatriate outcomes, little is known about the predictive ability of CQ on WE among expatriate academics. At present, studies regarding CQ have concentrated on behavioral outcomes, neglecting attitudinal outcomes, like WE which has a cross-over effect on various workplace outcomes. Understanding the effect of CQ on academic expatriates’ WE could assist the recruiting universities to improve the effectiveness of international HRM. Secondly, it is imperative to explore other important affective outcomes beyond cultural adjustment that may underlie the relationship between CQ and workplace outcomes. Thirdly, the concept of PNS and WE has been largely ignored in the expatriate literature, despite its potential to serve as a coping mechanism for successful international experience among expatriate academics. Lazarova et al. (2010), for example, called for more research to examine the outcomes of WE in the expatriate domain. Finally, this study could add to the body of knowledge on the determinants of expatriate academics’ effectiveness in the Malaysian context, as studies on this aspect are extremely limited despite an increasing number of expatriate academics joining the Malaysian universities of late.
Theoretical foundation
Cultural intelligence
Drawing upon Sternberg and Detterman’s (1986) multiple-loci conceptualization of contemporary intelligence, Earley and Ang (2003) proposed the four-factor model of CQ consists of mental (metacognitive and cognitive), motivational, and behavioral components. Metacognitive CQ reflects the mental capability to acquire and understand cultural knowledge. Cognitive CQ reflects general knowledge and knowledge structures of culture. Motivational CQ reflects individual capability to direct energy toward learning about and functioning in intercultural situations. Behavioral CQ reflects individual capability to exhibit appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions in culturally diverse interactions (Ang, Van Dyne et al., 2015). Broadly defined as a person’s capability to function effectively in culturally diverse contexts (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008), CQ reflects a general set of capabilities that facilitates an individual’s effectiveness across different cultural environments (Ang, Rockstuh et al., 2015). Studies have found CQ is distinct from personality traits and explains variance in cross-cultural competencies beyond stable individual differences (Eisenberg et al., 2013). CQ has received considerable research attention since the introduction of the four-factor CQ Scale (CQS) by Ang et al. (2007). Studies on samples from North America, South America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and Asia have found that CQ is culture-free and refers to intercultural capability that predicts various outcomes among expatriates, international business travelers, foreign laborers, global domestics, and international students (Ang and Van Dyne, 2008; Ang, Rockstuh et al., 2015; Earley and Ang, 2003). As a malleable capability that may change based on cultural exposure, training, modeling, mentoring, and socialization (Earley and Ang, 2003), CQ is developmental in nature and may lead to greater effectiveness of expatriates over time (Crowne, 2013; Earley and Peterson, 2004; Nunes et al., 2017; Triandis, 2006). To date, studies regarding CQ have covered the antecedents of CQ and outcomes of CQ; CQ has also been studied as mediator and moderator in expatriate literature, where CQ has been linked to various cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes of expatriates, such as cultural judgment and decision-making (Ang et al., 2007), cultural adjustment (Huff et al., 2014), citizenship behavior (Rockstuhl et al., 2015), job performance (Chen et al., 2011; Şahin and Gürbüz, 2014), leadership effectiveness (Ramsey et al., 2016; Rockstuhl et al., 2011), job satisfaction (Barakat et al., 2015), marketing adaptation and export performance (Magnusson et al., 2013), team performance (Moon, 2013), and intercultural negotiation effectiveness (Imai and Gelfand, 2010). In addition to direct relationships, several studies have included factors, such as cultural adjustment (Jyoti and Kour, 2015; Lee and Sukoco, 2010), culture shock (Chen et al., 2011), and trust (Luu and Rowley, 2016), to test the indirect effect of CQ on various expatriate outcomes. CQ has also been studied as a moderator. Elenkov and Manev (2009), for example, in their study of senior expatriate managers and their subordinates, found CQ moderates the effect of senior expatriates’ leadership on organizational innovation.
Work engagement
WE or employee engagement has often been used interchangeably in the literature (Schaufeli and Witte, 2017) and has been conceptualized as the opposite, positive pole of burnout (Maslach and Leiter, 1997). The concept has gained research attention in the field of human resource development (HRD) and can be traced back to Kahn’s (1990) seminal ethnographic work that suggests that improving WE has a significantly positive impact on an organization’s bottom-line and employees’ performance (Eldor, 2016; Shuck et al., 2011). To date, WE has been empirically distinguished from concepts, such as workaholism, burnout, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, and job involvement (Eldor, 2016). Although the conceptualization of WE is not new in the literature (see Kahn, 1990, 1992; Macey and Schneider, 2008; Maslach and Leiter, 1997; May et al., 2004; Rothbard, 2001; Shuck and Wollard, 2010), Schaufeli et al.’s (2002) work has been the subject of several scientific studies in the field of HRD, specifically their conceptualization and operationalization of WE, using the Utrech WE Scale (see the meta-analyses of Christian et al., 2011 and Rich et al., 2010). WE is most often defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2010; Schaufeli et al., 2002). Vigor is generally characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working. Dedication, on the other hand, is characterized by being strongly involved in one’s work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, and challenge. Finally, absorption refers to being fully focused and happily engrossed in one’s work, often finding difficulties in detaching oneself from work (Bakker and Demerouti, 2008; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). Drawing from the job demands-resources (JD-R) model, Bakker and Demerouti (2008) argued that job resources and personal resources, independently or combined, predict WE. They further claimed job resources and personal resources, particularly, have a positive impact on engagement when job demands are high.
Psychological needs satisfaction
The concept of PNS, which is grounded in the Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT), can be traced back to the SDT, a broad theory of human motivation proposed by Deci and Ryan (2000) and Ryan and Deci (2000). Drawing from the SDT framework, psychological needs are defined as, “innate psychological nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity and well-being” (Deci and Ryan, 2000: 229). According to Chen et al. (2015), the BPNT posits individuals, regardless of their cultural differences, will have three basic psychological needs, namely, autonomy, relatedness, and competence. They further argued that the satisfaction of these needs is universally important for the well-being of humans, whereas the dissatisfaction with psychological needs undermines motivation and leads to maladjustment and even, psychopathology (Vansteenkiste and Ryan, 2013). Accordingly, the need for autonomy satisfaction refers to the experience of self-determination, full willingness, and volition when carrying out an activity. In contrast, autonomy frustration involves feeling controlled through externally enforced or self-imposed pressures (Chen et al., 2015; deCharms, 1968; Deci and Ryan, 1985). The relatedness satisfaction, on the other hand, refers to the experience of intimacy and genuine connection with others (Ryan, 1995), whereas relatedness frustration involves the experience of relational exclusion and loneliness (Chen et al., 2015). Finally, the competence satisfaction involves feeling effective and capable of achieving desired outcomes (Deci, 1975; Ryan, 1995), whereas competence frustration involves feelings of failure and doubts about one’s efficacy. Studies have found psychological needs are strongly related to individuals’ autonomous motivation and well-being across cultures (Chen et al., 2015; Deci et al., 2001; Sheldon et al., 2001). Chen et al. (2015), in their study, found satisfaction of all three needs contributes to life satisfaction and global well-being across the four culturally diverse samples, although there was some variation in the unique role each of the needs played across cultures. The mediating role of PNS has been well documented in the domestic literature (Chen et al., 2013; Elst et al., 2012; Orkibi and Ronen, 2017). However, the application of this concept in expatriate studies is still at the infant stage and deserves research attention.
Hypotheses
CQ and PNS
Previous research has demonstrated that cross-cultural transition and adaptation will generate stress leading to the need to cope with it through acculturation strategies; thus, these factors influence well-being psychologically (Berry, 2006; Berry and Sam, 1997; Ward and Kennedy, 2001). Ang et al. (2007) found that CQ is related to cultural adaptation, including the aspect of psychological well-being. CQ in unison could help individuals to cope with the uncertainties and demands of moving, working, and living in a foreign culture (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005). CQ allows individuals to gain a better understanding of cultures, thus enabling them to work in a positive and compassionate way with people from various cultures (Alon and Higgins, 2005). This includes the fulfillment of basic psychological needs for ongoing global well-being. Dimensions of CQ may have an influence on the fulfillment of the competence, autonomy, and relatedness aspects of PNS. The cognitive components of CQ (metacognitive and cognitive CQ), which reflect the cultural knowledge segment of CQ, are likely to help individuals to understand the general rules of a new culture; learn the appropriate work values, expectations, and standards; and enhance the quality of interpersonal relationships with locals in the host country (Takeuchi et al., 2002). Through the capability to acquire and master the local culture, both at work and outside work, individuals will feel more competent in establishing a successful global work experience. A handful of studies has looked at the development of competence satisfaction as a result of mastery of local culture among expatriates (Freeman and Lindsay, 2012; Huff, 2013; Lee and Sukoco, 2010). The motivational CQ which is grounded in a person’s self-motives or self-concept of enhancement, efficacy, and consistency (Bandura, 2002; Erez and Earley, 1993) will motivate individuals to learn about, be confident in approaching, and be able to cope with new cultural circumstances (Earley and Ang, 2003). It is expected that individuals will make positive self-evaluation of their competence and autonomy through intrinsic motivation inherited in this dimension of CQ. Studies have found higher efficacy beliefs lead to engagement and persistence in difficult situations as well as better adjustment (Epel et al., 1999). The behavioral CQ which describes an individual’s capability to employ and display culturally appropriate verbal and nonverbal behavior when interacting with people from different cultures (Ng et al., 2012) is likely to enable individuals to assimilate effectively in a new cultural environment. Effective cross-cultural behavior is attributed to or explained by an individual’s self-presentation, which encompasses self-enhancement and impression management (Earley and Ang, 2003). Thus, individuals high in behavioral CQ are aware and considerate of the presentation and impression they make (Barakat et al., 2015). Hence, behavioral CQ should positively influence their perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy when navigating through a culturally diverse environment abroad. Drawing from the above discussion, overall, CQ is expected to positively influence expatriate academics’ PNS attained through perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy, while working and living abroad. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
CQ and WE
To date, little is known about the effects of CQ on WE among expatriate academics. Despite this limitation, we foresee CQ’s potential in predicting WE in an intercultural environment. The JD-R model of WE posits that drivers of WE can be grouped into job resources and personal resources (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). Personal resources, in particular, can be considered as positive self-evaluations that are linked to resiliency and refer to individuals’ sense of their ability to control and impact on their environment successfully (Hobfoll et al., 2003). Judge et al. (2004), in their review, concluded that such positive self-evaluation predicts goal-setting, motivation, performance, job and life satisfaction, career ambition, and other desirable outcomes. Personal resources, such as optimism, self-efficacy, self-esteem, resilience, and an active coping style, have been associated with WE (Bakker and Demerouti, 2008). CQ capability can be considered as a form of personal resource and has some relevance in relation to WE. Unlike other forms of intelligences and cultural competencies, CQ works in unison, drawing on the advantages of all four dimensions (metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral) in describing the intercultural capabilities domain (Ang, Van Dyne et al., 2015). The greater an individual’s personal resources in the form of intercultural capability, the more positive the person’s self-regard and more goal self-concordance is expected to be experienced; this subsequently spills over into a positive work attitude. CQ helps one to overcome the challenges of cultural barriers and stress associated with uncertainties encountered in a new culture, hence enabling individuals to develop positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind. Such positive self-evaluation of one’s intercultural capability (CQ) may stimulate intrinsic motivation to exert high levels of energy and mental resilience while working (vigor), being strongly involved in one’s work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, and challenge (dedication) and being fully focused and happily engrossed in one’s work (absorption) in a cross-cultural setting. In a study on people travelling abroad, it has been observed that the chance of “burnout” reduces when people have a higher level of CQ (Tay et al., 2008). This clearly indicates that higher level of CQ is helpful in reducing “burn out” problem among expatriates. Further investigation of the burnout theory clearly highlights engagement as the opposite of burnout (Maslach and Leiter, 1997, Schaufeli et al., 2002). Based on above discussion, we propose
PNS and WE
The BPNT maintains that the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness contributes to individuals’ flourishing and wellness and protects them against ill-being (Deci and Ryan, 2008). Studies have linked the relationship between PNS and motivation for optimal functioning of individuals across diverse groups and work and nonwork contexts and cultures (Sheldon et al., 2001). Although limited, these handful of studies has found a positive relationship between PNS and employees’ work-related outcomes, such as job satisfaction, WE, and lower burnout (Gagné and Deci, 2005; Ilardi et al., 1993; Van den Broeck et al., 2008); decreased turnover intentions (Lynch et al., 2005; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007); and employees’ performance (Baard et al., 2004; Richer and Vallerand, 1995). The BPNT suggests that individuals experiencing needs satisfaction are expected to feel energized and to engage actively in more need fulfilling activities (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). According to Gagné and Deci (2005), the BPNT focuses not on the consequences of the strength of those needs for different individuals, but rather on the consequences of the extent to which individuals are able to satisfy the needs within social environments (Gagné and Deci, 2005). We, therefore, hypothesize that needs satisfaction is a stimulating experience that fuels more needs seeking behavior, like WE. In other words, if needs are met within the work environment, individuals would likely continue to feel engaged in their work as long as it continues to meet their needs. Eryilmaz (2011) and Howell et al. (2011) claimed a person’s subjective well-being will be at its highest when he or she engages in behavior that satisfies these three needs. Applying the BPNT in the context of expatriates, we believe individuals will engage in their work, motivated by the desire to fulfill the three basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in order to safeguard themselves from cultural-related difficulties when working in a new cultural setting. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
CQ, PNS, and WE
The hypothesized interrelationships among CQ, PNS, and WE in the preceding sections suggest that intrinsic motivation to fulfill basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) could possibly mediate the effects of CQ on WE and enable optimal functioning of individuals in a cross-cultural environment. PNS has been studied as mediator in numerous studies (e.g. Alwerthan et al., 2017; Kovjanic et al., 2013; Van den Broeck et al., 2008), confirming the importance of this motivational factor as an underlying mechanism for explaining individual attitude and behavior in quest for well-being in a social setting. The conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001, 2002) suggests that individuals seek to protect, retain, and accumulate the resources that are desirable and instrumental for attaining higher order goals. Consistent with the premise of the conservation of resources theory, CQ, as a form of personal resource, will provide a better chance to individuals to invest this resource to gain additional resources to achieve higher order goals (Hobfoll, 2002). The spillover theory (Wilensky, 1960) suggests that perception (PNS), attitude, and behavior in one’s social setting can be manifested in another social setting (WE) as a reflection of one’s competence (CQ). Accordingly, we argue that when employees are able to satisfy their basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, these positive feelings of well-being or psychological resource are likely to be translated into WE and a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind. This is consistent with Sieber’s (1974) argument that resources can be transferred from one area of life to another. Similarly, we believe psychological resources (PNS) acquired through investment in CQ will enable individuals to transform it into WE. Higher WE is expected when psychological needs are continuously satisfied as a result of individuals’ effort to invest in and direct their CQ capability to maintain the desired equilibrium when working in a new cultural environment. The cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions of CQ will provide the necessary resources to attain the basic needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness before it spills over into WE. Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Research model
Figure 1 presents the proposed model for the current study with the main objective to test the mediation effect of PNS on the relationship between CQ and WE as indicated in hypothesis 4. The direct relationships, as postulated in hypotheses 1–3, were also tested in this study. The bootstrapping method (Preacher and Hayes, 2004; Preacher et al., 2007) was employed to test the mediation hypothesis of the study.
Direct and indirect model.
Bootstrapping method
The bootstrapping method (Preacher and Hayes, 2004; Preacher et al., 2007) involves repeatedly and randomly sampling observations with replacement from the data set to compute the desired statistic in each resample. The underlying principle of mediation analysis is that some of the effects of the independent variables, the predictors, are transmitted to the dependent variable, the outcome, through the mediator variable. Additionally, some of the effects of the predictors pass directly to the outcome variable. Accordingly, the portion of the effect of the predictor that passes through the mediator is the indirect effect. Bootstrapping method is regarded as a powerful method to test mediation analysis since this technique detects the skew in the sampling distribution of the mediated effect. The bootstrapping method has been proposed as an alternative to the Sobel test for mediation (MacKinnon et al., 1995).
Methodology
Data were obtained from expatriate academics employed in 20 public universities in Malaysia using a self-administered questionnaire. Both the mail and online survey methods were employed in this study. The population size of 1595 expatriate academics was decided upon after contacting the Registrar’s Office of the 20 public universities. Additionally, university websites were visited to finalize the population size. Academic staff directories of the relevant universities were then compiled to establish the sampling frame. A total of 477 questionnaires were distributed using the formula suggested by Bartlett et al. (2001) to determine statistically significant sample size that represents the population of the study. Further validation with other methods to determine representative sample size for above population yields somewhat smaller sample size. For example, based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) sample size determination table, we found sample size of 310 is adequate to represent the above population. Hence, sample size of 477 is deemed appropriate for this study. Furthermore, with adequate sample size, we can make statistically valid inferences about the population without having to actually survey the entire population (Cohen et al., 2011). The data collection process lasted for 4 months from April 2016 to July 2016.
Measurement and scales
WE was operationalized with the Utrecht WE Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003). The UWES is a 17-item self-report instrument (UWES-17) with three dimensions: vigor (six items), dedication (five items), and absorption (six items). A seven-point Likert-type scale with rating options from 0 = Never to 6 = Always/every day was used to measure the construct. The internal consistencies (Cronbach’s α) of the scale ranged between 0.80 and 0.90 (Durán et al., 2004; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). CQ was measured with the 20-item self-reported four-factor model of CQS developed and validated by Ang et al. (2007). The scale includes four items for metacognitive CQ, six for cognitive CQ, five for motivational CQ, and five for behavioral CQ. Respondents were asked to use a seven-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree to indicate the extent to which each item describes their capabilities. Cronbach’s α values for metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral CQ were 0.76, 0.76, 0.79, and 0.77, respectively (Ward et al., 2009). PNS was measured using a 21-item scale from Deci et al. (2001) which assessed the extent to which individuals experience satisfaction with their three basic psychological needs (i.e. autonomy, competence, and relatedness) at work. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true to 7 = Very true. The internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s α) for autonomy satisfaction, competence satisfaction, and relatedness satisfaction were 0.79, 0.73, and 0.84, respectively (Deci et al., 2001). In the present study, the summated score was calculated by the respective dimensions to enable the hypothesis testing. The average score was generated using SPSS (Version 23, statistic software package) before they were aggregated to represent the dimensions. All items were retained for the subsequent analyses.
Results
Demographic profile
The data collection yielded 152 usable questionnaires for analysis of the 477 questionnaires distributed which resulted in a 32 percent response rate. The response rate is consistent with other typical response rates (20−30 percent) in most expatriate studies (Harrison and Shaffer, 2005). The respondents included 77.6 percent males and 22.4 percent females. Majority of the respondents are in the age group of 40–49 years (44.1 percent) followed by those in the age group of 50–59 years (37.5 percent). Most of the respondents are doctorate degree holders (85.5 percent) followed by those with master’s degree qualification (13.2 percent). In terms of marital status, majority of the respondents are married n = 118 (77.6 percent), followed by single n = 34 (22.4 percent). Associate professors represent 36.8 percent followed by professors (25.7 percent). The continent of origin of respondents included 51.3 percent from Asia and Africa comprised 46.1 percent.
Descriptive statistics, reliability coefficients, and correlations
The descriptive statistics for all variables are presented in Table 1, along with the correlation matrices. Mean values and standard deviation (SD) of variables are as follows: WE (M = 4.33, SD = 0.67), PNS (M = 5.10, SD = 0.32), and CQ (M = 5.04, SD = 0.29). Quick inspection on the mean scores shows all are higher than the midpoint of their respective scales, indicating that the respondents generally perceive themselves as engaged with their work and regarded themselves as fulfilling psychological needs and possessing higher level of CQ. Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for all scales are as follows: WE (α = 0.949), PNS (α = 0.805), and CQ (α = 0.751). As illustrated in Table 1, the bivariate analysis using Pearson’s correlation coefficients shows the relationships are in expected direction as hypothesized. CQ has a significantly positive relationship with WE (r = 0.848, p < 0.01) and PNS (r = 0.704, p < 0.01). PNS also has a significantly positive relationship with WE (r = 0.670, p < 0.01). The findings suggest that higher level of CQ may lead to greater WE and PNS among expatriate academics. Similarly, the result suggests perceived PNS may lead to greater WE.
Descriptive statistics, reliability, and correlations among variables (N = 152).
Note: Coefficient αs are presented along the diagonal. CQ: cultural intelligence; PNS: psychological needs satisfaction; WE: work engagement; SD: standard deviation.
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
Hypothesis testing
The hypotheses were formally tested with multiple regression and mediation analysis to assess each component of the proposed model using PROCESS Macro (Hayes, 2013) and SPSS 23. PROCESS is a conditional process modeling program developed by Preacher and Hayes that utilizes an ordinary least squares-based path analytical framework to test for both direct and indirect effects (Hayes, 2013). In the first step, it was found that CQ is positively associated with WE (β = 1.7198, p < 0.001). In the second step, it was found that CQ is positively related to PNS (β = 0.780, p < 0.001). Finally, in the third step, results indicate that increasing PNS is positively related to WE (β = 0.2997, p < 0.05; see Table 2). Figure 2 presents that all the paths are statistically significant. In addition, following MacKinnon et al. (2004) and Preacher and Hayes (2004), the hypothesized mediation model could be confirmed and further mediation was tested through the bootstrapping method using bias-corrected confidence estimates. In this study, a 95 percent confidence interval (CI) of indirect effects was obtained with 5000 bootstrap resamples (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). Results of the mediation analyses as presented in Table 2 confirm the mediating role of PNS in the relationship between CQ and WE (β = 0.2338, CI = 0.0312–0.4234).
The mediation analysis (N = 152).
Note: LL: lower limit; UL: upper limit; CI: confidence interval; SE: standard error; CQ: cultural intelligence; PNS: psychological needs satisfaction: WE: work engagement. Unstandardized regression coefficients are reported with SE in parenthesis.
aDirect and total effect.
bBootstrap sample size = 5000.
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.
Model of CQ as predictor of work engagement mediated by PNS. Note: CQ: cultural intelligence; PNS: psychological needs satisfaction; WE: work engagement.
In addition, the results indicate that the direct effect of CQ on WE remained significant (β = 1.7198, p < 0.001) when controlling for PNS, thus suggesting partial mediation. In other words, PNS only mediates part of the effect of CQ on WE. In other words, CQ has some residual direct effect even after the mediator (PNS) is introduced in the model. From the bootstrap percentile CI shown in Table 2, the entire path is 95 percent of the bootstrap estimates, not including 0. This CI leads to the conclusion that indirect effect of CQ on WE is significantly different from 0. The above results suggest that higher CQ leads to greater PNS and WE among expatriate academics, which support the first and second hypothesis of the study. Moreover, PNS tends to increase the level of WE, providing support for the third hypothesis. In addition, an examination of the specific indirect effect (see Table 2) indicates that PNS is a mediator, since its 95 percent CI does not contain zero, hence providing support for the fourth hypothesis.
Discussion
Main findings
Consistent with previous research findings investigating business expatriates, CQ is also relevant in predicting workplace outcomes among expatriate academics who initiated their foreign jobs themselves and are actively seeking career opportunities in universities all over the word (Doherty et al., 2013). Although there is no study documented so far on the relationship between CQ and WE, the positive association between CQ and WE suggests that CQ, as a form of personal intercultural capability, helps individuals to effectively deal with cultural barriers encountered in new cultural environments and as a result of this, they develop a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind. In other words, they engage in their work. The JD-R model of WE also suggests personal resource, like CQ, which is associated with qualities, like optimism, self-efficacy, self-esteem, resilience, and active coping style, is a key determinant of WE (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). The findings of this study also suggest that CQ, a malleable cross-cultural capability, is capable of predicting attitudinal outcomes at the workplace, like WE which has been associated with employees’ performance in the domestic setting.
Additionally, the positive association between CQ and PNS indicates that CQ capability works in unison to help individuals to fulfill their basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness when navigating through a new cultural environment. Basic psychological needs could be at stake when being an expatriate academic in a foreign university requires the expatriate to cope with uncertainties and demands of moving, working, and living in a foreign culture. Hence, one needs to have a high level of CQ to meet these basic psychological needs for global well-being and adjustment (Vansteenkiste and Ryan, 2013). The finding is consistent with the premise of the SDT (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2000) that posits that individuals, regardless of their cultural differences, will have three basic psychological needs as indicated above.
The positive association between PNS and WE, on the other hand, is consistent with previous research findings that have linked PNS with employees’ work-related outcomes, such as job satisfaction, WE, and lower burnout (cf. Gagné and Deci, 2005; Ilardi et al., 1993); employees’ performance (Baard et al., 2004); and turnover intentions (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). In other words, basic psychological needs will stimulate intrinsic motivation that provides energy to engage actively in more needs-fulfilling activities (Howell et al., 2011; Vansteenkiste et al., 2007). The desire to fulfill basic psychological needs in a new culture is more crucial given the need to maintain overall well-being and life satisfaction during the expatriates’ stay in the host country (Chen et al., 2015).
Unlike in the expatriate context, the mediating role of PNS is well documented in domestic literature (cf. Elst et al., 2012; Orkibi and Ronen, 2017). Despite limited studies in the expatriate context, the findings of this study shed some light on the role of PNS as an enabler of positive workplace outcomes in a global setting. The evidence of partial mediation suggests that CQ, as a personal resource, should energize individuals to engage in their work that is much needed to fulfill their basic satisfaction needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The partial mediation effect of PNS found in this study also suggests that CQ passes directly to WE. The finding is consistent with the premise of the spillover theory (Wilensky, 1960) that posits affective reactions like PNS as a result of one’s capability in a social setting (CQ) will be manifested in positive attitudinal outcomes, such as WE.
Implications
The findings give rise to a number of implications, both theoretical and practical as well as suggestions for future research. Theoretically, this study is the first to examine the effects of CQ on PNS and WE among expatriate academics. Unlike previous studies on CQ which have focused on outcomes commonly studied among business expatriates, for example, cultural adjustment, cultural judgment and decision-making, job performance, and turnover intention, findings of this study evince that CQ is also capable of predicting workplace outcomes that have received considerable research attention in the domestic setting. WE, in particular, is a very important attitudinal outcome that is relevant in both domestic and across cultures since it has been associated with workplace outcomes, such as in-role and extra-role performance (Halbesleben and Wheeler, 2008; Lauring and Selmer, 2015), job satisfaction (Ramos and Almeida, 2017), and cultural adjustment (Selmer and Lauring, 2016). Similarly, the predictive ability of CQ on PNS is another important theoretical implication of this study. It should be noted that dissatisfaction of basic psychological needs undermines motivation and reduces adjustment and well-being of individuals working in cross-cultural environments (Chen et al., 2015; Deci et al., 2001). This study provides support that CQ works in unison to influence expatriate academics’ PNS attained through perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy when working and living abroad. The mediating role of PNS is another important theoretical contribution of this study. Consistent with findings in domestic studies (Kovjanic et al., 2013; Van den Broeck et al., 2008), PNS is also found to serve as an important underlying mechanism for explaining individual attitude in the quest for well-being in an intercultural setting. PNS is another important affective outcome in the intercultural setting which can be studied as mediator in future research in addition to commonly studied enablers, such as cross-cultural adjustment.
In practical terms, it is important to note that CQ is capable of predicting both PNS and WE among expatriate academics. Specifically, it is found that CQ accounts for greater variance in WE than PNS. First, this observation suggests that universities must have greater understanding on the set of expected behaviors that is needed if the universities want to improve the work outcome of expatriate academics. WE should be included in the performance appraisal of expatriate academics. In this regard, CQ capability development can be treated as an effective intervention to promote WE. Secondly, universities may need to incorporate the assessment on CQ capability in its selection and recruitment process when sourcing for foreign faculty. In the case of expatriate academics, the assessment process should not just focus on traditional recruitment criteria currently used to recruit academics regardless of their background. Different assessment methods should be used for expatriate academics, which focus on intercultural capability, like CQ. Self-assessment and later the 360-Degree Feedback using CQS developed by Ang et al. (2007) can be used for this purpose. Thirdly, universities should focus on providing necessary support to expatriate academics to fulfill their basic psychological needs of perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy. New faculty orientation programs should be made mandatory for newcomers, including foreign faculty, to introduce them to the university community and serve as a platform to provide relevant information, resources, and support for teaching, research, publication, and so on. Finally, the potential applicants themselves should be able to do self-assessment on their perceived job-fit and environment-fit before accepting the job offer. The findings of this study will provide better understanding of what is required of them to enable them to make the necessary arrangements before their arrival.
Limitations and future research recommendations
This study has several shortcomings that could limit the extent to which the findings may be generalized. First, the sample consisting of expatriate academics only in Malaysia may limit the generalization to this setting. Any attempt to apply the findings of this study to general organizational expatriates or other segments of self-initiated professionals is not recommended. Secondly, the variables were measured at the same time from the same source; hence, common method variance cannot be ruled out (Selmer and Lauring, 2011). However, adhering to the suggestion by Podsakoff and Organ (1986), an un-rotated factor analysis was performed and it indicated that the first factor accounted for only 37.5 percent of the total 79.7 percent variance, demonstrating that the common method bias was not a serious problem in this study. Thirdly, since the study applied cross-sectional research design, establishing cause and effect (causality) is not possible. A longitudinal research design could have resulted in the establishment of some form of causal effect. Fourthly, the use of self-reported measures to assess both the criterion and predictor variables could be the other limitation in this study. Data from supervisors or peers regarding criterion variables could also have been applied in this study. Finally, the use of a small sample size is another limitation of this study. One possible explanation for poor participation is that expatriate academics could have been occupied with research, teaching, and other academic responsibilities which prevented them from having spare time to participate in this research. Furthermore, the data collection period of this study which took place from April to July 2016 was almost at the end of the semester and many could have been busy with final examination marking. While the findings of this study shed light on expatriate academics and their work attitude, future research could expand upon this study beyond CQ by investigating a comprehensive list of resources available on expatriate academics covering factors related to personal, organizational, and social/contextual resources that influence WE and PNS. Resources embedded in social networks within and outside the work environment could be important determinants of expatriate academics’ behavioral outcomes. Additionally, future research may include other possible moderating or mediating factors to understand better how various resources affect expatriate academics’ outcomes. Finally, as the findings of this study show, the positive effects of CQ on WE and PNS are not limited to expatriate academics; hence it is recommended that future researchers examine similar predictors and outcomes on other segments of self-initiated expatriates or organizational expatriates.
Conclusion
The key conclusion of this study is that PNS partially mediates the relationship between CQ and WE. In other words, the relationship between CQ and WE is both direct and indirect in direction, mediated through PNS. The current study enhances the cross-cultural management literature, particularly on the management of expatriate academics by incorporating the mediation effect of PNS between the CQ and WE relationship. The evidence on the indirect influence of PNS on the relationship between CQ and WE proves that PNS has a major contribution in the promotion of a positive workplace attitude, like WE. Future researchers are encouraged to further study the generalization of the present research findings to other types of international employees.
Footnotes
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for granting the Fundamental Research Grant to carry out this research.