A proposed model of transmission of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong higher education: From oral tradition to conservatoire

Background

Cantonese opera, one of the most representative traditional genres in China, has been popular in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces since the Qing dynasty, subsequently spreading to Hong Kong and Macau (Chan, 1991, 2005). Cantonese opera in Hong Kong grew rapidly in the early 20th century; troupes would give performances in major cities like Guangzhou and Hong Kong (Lai, 2010), and artistry of eminent artists was transmitted through the practice of apprenticeship. However, according to Cheng (2018), Cantonese opera was subsequently forced to face the challenge of dwindling audiences, particularly among the younger generation, many of whom preferred entertainment that they considered to be more ‘modern’, such as movies. Another important reason behind this reversal in fortunes was because movie ticket prices were significantly lower than for live performances of Cantonese opera. As a result, some Cantonese opera theatres were converted into cinemas. With each generation, fewer people are learning it, creating the situation today where inheritance is a serious concern.

Given the current position, this article reports parts of a large-scale study with a focus on reviewing the transmission of Cantonese opera. As such, it analyses the inheritance patterns of apprenticeship practices, as well as learning through community troupes and conservatory training. Based on the findings, a new model for nurturing future Cantonese opera artists in Hong Kong is proposed for the reference of relevant parties.

Inheritance issues of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong

The Chinese term for Chinese opera is xiqu (戲曲), literally meaning ‘theatre and song’. This term reflects that traditional Chinese theatre was linked to music and dance in which the actors and actresses had to perform singing, reciting, acting, and fighting on stage. Building on local and regional folk music, folk dance and plays, Chinese xiqu was initiated in Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and flourished in Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) (Lai, 2010). Chinese xiqu was originated from regional shengqiang (聲腔), literally meaning ‘voice-cavity’ and referring to specific musical systems, including the Yiyangqiang (弋陽腔) from Jiangxi Province, Kunshanqiang (崑山腔) from Jiangsu Province, and Bangziqiang (梆子腔) from Shanxi Province. Nowadays, there are more than 360 Chinese opera genres (Siu and Lovrick, 2014: ix); some of them are developed from one single qiang, such as the Kun Opera from Kunshanqiang, while Cantonese opera employs mainly the Bangziqiang and Erhuangqiang (二黃腔) (from Jiangxi Province). Yung (1983) categorises the songs of the Bangziqiang and Erhuangqiang as Aria Types, which contain ‘two short lines of melody (or their variant forms) sung to two lines of text’ (p. 32). Different Aria Types require the application of specific dramatic expressions. Cantonese is a tonal language with nine different tones. The scriptwriter, who acts like a Western operatic composer, initially writes the lyrics in paired lines of text; singers have to create a melody that matches the linguistic tones of the Cantonese lyrics. Apart from Aria Types, Cantonese opera comprises different kinds of speeches, fixed tunes (known as siu kuk), and narrative music.

In acting, performers have to solve many theatrical problems – how to show that the actor is riding on a boat or a horse? How to bring two armies for a battle scene on stage? Using props, customs, and stage movements can express different abstract scenes (Siu and Lovrick, 2014). For instance, holding and waiving a horsewhip may represent riding on a horse, shaking a general’s pheasant tails on his helmet may express his prestige and power, and using mime may express common behaviours such as opening and closing the door without an existent door on stage. All these require the performer to learn for years before getting skilful on stage. There is a proverb in the field of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong: ‘It takes ten years of practice in order to perform one minute on stage.’ Perhaps it is exaggerated, but it is definitely necessary to take long time to become a skilful artist, which formulates the crisis of transmission.

The current crisis facing the Cantonese opera industry is the discontinuity of inheritance (Yip, 2008; Yuen, 2008). According to Yuen Siu-fai (2008), a Cantonese opera vateran, the following factors have all contributed: (1) The Cultural Revolution in mainland China and consequently the Hong Kong Leftist Riots in 1967 had led to an economic depression and instability of the community in late 1960s and early 1970s (Schenk, 2009). Public entertainment including Cantonese opera was affected while audience number dropped significantly. Experienced artists were forced to find better-paid jobs, which led to a drop in the number of performers. Local troupes had no option but to hire undertrained performers, which subsequently affected the quality of their productions. (2) Cantonese opera schools and conservatories no longer teach traditional repertoires, and the old training model for artists does not exist anymore. (3) Very few professionally trained graduates in Cantonese opera are joining the industry. (4) When the training of Cantonese opera is influenced by teachers of Beijing opera, students’ understanding and learning can be affected. Before 1920s, Cantonese opera was developed with the so-called nanpai 南派 (literally southern school) with specific movements and martial arts from south China (Lai, 2010). Mr Xue Juexian 薛覺先, an eminent Cantonese opera actor, started to import elements of Beijing opera including percussion music, fixed tunes, costumes, stage setting, as well as fighting patterns, known as beipai 北派 (literally northern school) (Ng, 2015). Since then, some Peking opera instructors from mainland China have immigrated to Hong Kong and started teaching in local Cantonese opera troupes and schools. Mr Yuen is worried that future artists will only learn the ‘northern school’, resulting in the extinction of the ‘southern school’. On the other hand, Yip (2008) attributes the worsening transmission issue to the training of Cantonese opera artists. Although Hong Kong is not without professional training institutions in Cantonese opera, their programmes focus mainly on performance training, meaning that graduates of these programmes are not familiar with the operation and conventions of traditional troupes.

The issues of economic depression and political instability in the 1960s mentioned by Yuen (2008) were also important factors behind the decline in popularity of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the political relationship between the mainland and Hong Kong started to evolve. In mainland China during the mid-1950s, the Cantonese opera business model changed from a commercial to a national approach. Artists in Guangdong Province were used as a form of propaganda, being urged to help promote national policies (Tse, 2016). None of the mainland artists were allowed to leave or integrate with Hong Kong artists. Furthermore, during the Cultural Revolution from 1967 to 1976, many Cantonese opera practitioners were forced to abandon their careers and take up agricultural work. The situation gradually improved in the 1980s when the reform of the Chinese economy started and the market opened up. For its part, Hong Kong operated a free market economy as its business model during the same period. Popular artists were able to sustain their livelihoods; those who were less successful had to quit.

The 1960s and 1970s in Hong Kong were times of political instability; in echoes of the Cultural Revolution, some Cantonese opera artists were called upon to rally against the British government. According to Lee (2005), the Nanguo Cantonese Opera Troupe 南國粵劇團 was founded in the 1960s by a group of leftists in Hong Kong. The members, many of whom came from the working class, invited some professional musicians and artists to train them to perform in commercial settings. During the Leftists Riots in 1967 (see Cheung, 2009), the troupe joined the strike and rehearsed a yangbanxi 樣板戲 [literally model opera], ¹ entitled The Legend of the Red Lantern. Reflecting the deep divisions between the left and right wings in Hong Kong society at the time, the play was performed on more than 100 occasions in Hong Kong and Macau.

Another issue is the result of the globalisation of education in the 20th century. Cantonese opera is not exempt, and the training of artists owes much to the influence of Western institutions. Typically, a branch of study is divided into many subcategories, each one being taught by a specialist within a limited period (e.g. see Hill, 2009). However, this process is only limited to the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Putting social culture into practice, as well as developing the creativity of artistry, is never straightforward. In fact, the latter requires a long period within a certain environment for nourishment to take place. The conservatory tradition provides specialised training in individual aspects of music (Deverich, 2009). Although this model of training can ensure that everyone meets the same standard upon completion, it does not necessarily provide sufficient space and opportunities for the development of creativity: identical learning techniques can lead to a lack of stylistic distinction between each individual. For instance, according to my observation at the Cantonese opera school (Leung, 2015a), a teacher was teaching three students to perform in a scene with singing and acting with specific movements. She first required all three students to imitate her singing and movements simultaneously with her. Afterwards she asked all the students to perform while she observed. She went on to stop and point to one of the students on some specific movements. Ultimately, the teacher was satisfied when all the three students could imitate the teacher’s performance to a certain extent. On the other hand, it has been found that, depending on the strategies employed, imitation exemplars may contribute to creative problem solving (Mecca and Mumford, 2014). Moreover, in the oral tradition, after developing a solid foundation, the Cantonese opera master may further nurture apprentices according to their personal traits (Leung, 2015b).

This article aims to report the findings of an extensive study by summarising the natures and characteristics of the practices of apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory tradition in previous studies implemented by the author and others. Integrating the pedagogical advantages and disadvantages of apprenticeship and community, as well as conservatory, training, this study proposes a new teaching model for nurturing Cantonese opera artists within the context of higher education, in the process creating a new career path for students. On the one hand, it will encourage students to stay and to work in this profession; on the other hand, it will provide an opportunity for teachers and curriculum planners to reflect on their pedagogical approaches and curriculum design.

During the first stage of the project, five eminent Cantonese opera artists, all of whom were trained via apprenticeship, were interviewed to explore the characteristics of such a training system (Leung, 2015b). During the second stage, multiple case studies were conducted at a community-based Cantonese opera troupe for children. For the third stage, teaching observations were arranged during a site visit to the Guangdong Cantonese Opera School in Guangdong Province, China. Teachers and students were interviewed in order to gather their views on the training offered by the School.

Transmission through apprenticeship

Apprenticeship was the original approach for the transmission of artistry of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong. The first stage of this research project interviewed five master artists. Through their personal apprenticeship experiences, the interviews contribute to the understanding of transmission methods practised between the 1950s and the 1970s (Leung, 2015b).

Transmission through community training

There are many community-based organisations that offer courses for young students to learn the genre. After years of experience, these organisations have their own modes of teaching, curriculum, and pedagogy. This section reports a case study of a children’s troupe for the purposes of understanding the overall teaching situation among organisations of a similar kind, in so doing exploring the implications of nurturing future professional Cantonese opera artists. The Hong Kong Children and Juvenile Chinese Opera Troupe (hereafter ‘the Troupe’) was founded in 1993, which mission is to promote Cantonese opera, encourage children and teenagers to understand and to appreciate the art form.

There are three types of compulsory courses in the Troupe, namely: Cantonese Operatic Singing, Basic Training, and Performance Practice. According to the course description in the promotion leaflet, Cantonese Operatic Singing primarily ‘teaches beats, notes, the correct production of sound, and breathing techniques, together with some standard repertoire as teaching materials’. Basic Movements aims to introduce the foundational skills related to basic bodily movement. Performance Practice focuses on rehearsing for upcoming shows, including certain fight scenes or scenes that involve difficult actions.

Transmission in the conservatory tradition

The Guangdong Cantonese Opera School (hereafter ‘the School’) was founded in 1958. Its Cantonese opera course was originally designed as a secondary-school curriculum. In 2012, the School merged with the Guangdong Dance School and became a tertiary institution named the Guangdong Dance and Drama College. ² Observations concentrated on exploring the programme based on the curriculum, teaching styles, and students’ feedback.

Comparing the three modes of transmission

Having examined the transmission modes as they relate to apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory tradition, the following discussion will focus on analysing the similarities and differences among the three modes in terms of entry for learning, teaching style, cultural norms, and career path. Reference is made to the three modes as they relate to the three learning styles of formal, informal, and non-formal.

Entering the field of Cantonese opera today is very different from the past. In the old days, ordinary people’s options were very limited. Often, these outsiders were either referred by relatives or by friends. In such cases, they entered the field via an apprenticeship. It is worth noting that students who decided to learn Cantonese opera may not necessarily have known or had an interest in this art form. Nowadays, entry has become more accessible. Talented people can apply for admission at various Cantonese opera schools or courses in the community, while the contemporary conservatory tradition is more open to the public. This is, without doubt, better than the practice of apprenticeship.

There is no age limit with an apprenticeship. However, modern students usually begin their community training and conservatory studies at a young age, since it is often difficult for students to enter the field if they start too late. As a result, while apprenticeships may have more flexibility, students need to take on heavier learning responsibilities. While learning in the conservatory tradition and community training is rather passive, students can graduate upon completion of all courses. Furthermore, apprenticeship admission is closely linked to the economic status of the society and family. Hong Kong’s economic environment was poor before and shortly after Second World War. Without the free education policy, ordinary families were unlikely to be able to afford school fees. Through an apprenticeship, one could not only learn to perform Cantonese opera for a living, but the training itself was also free, with food and accommodation provided. Thus, apprenticeships used to be the preferred option for families of limited means. Hong Kong parents play a vital role in terms of community training. Most parents of those who participate in community training are either Cantonese opera lovers or those hoping their children will be exposed to Chinese culture. The aim is to enhance students’ whole person development, including ethics and values, intellect, physical fitness, social skills, and aesthetics (Cheung, 2011). Most parents do not expect their children to work in the field of Cantonese opera, so it is treated as an extra-curricular activity. Maintaining an interest in learning is the key to success. For the Cantonese opera academy, primary graduates nowadays rarely choose this path for their secondary studies because entering the academy means entering the profession. Parents normally want their children to study at mainstream schools for better opportunities in terms of future development. Therefore, academies are experiencing a difficult admission situation. For those who do choose this path, they make their decisions based on a number of reasons, including experiencing difficult family situations, lacking survival/living skills and interest in studying, or having a passion for Cantonese opera.

There are similarities and differences in terms of teaching and learning among the aforementioned modes. Learning can be divided into formal learning, informal learning, and non-formal learning (OECD, 2016). According to the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), formal learning displays a clear course organisation and structure, including learning objective(s). From the learner perspective, formal learning is a conscious act of learning. In other words, the learner has the explicit goal of acquiring certain knowledge, skills, and/or abilities. Informal learning is never organised and lacks definite goals for learning outcomes; for learners, this form of learning is an unconscious one and is generally known as experience-based learning. Non-formal learning lies somewhere between the formal and informal modes of learning. It is relatively organised and can have learning objectives; hence, non-formal learning differs with regard to the flexibility it offers. Nevertheless, in order to avoid confusion, non-formal learning must be clearly defined from the others. ³ Cole (2015) describes music education in all three settings: (1) formal music education occurs in schools and institutions and is initiated by government policy, (2) non-formal music education is found in the activities of community music and traditional indigenous groups, and (3) informal music education takes place in family and social settings (p. 60). Furthermore, following discussions with representatives from 22 countries, the OECD advocates recognising informal and non-formal learning, both of which represent rich sources of human capital (Werquin, 2010). Some of the benefits of such recognition include providing value for both further formal learning and within the labour market, generating economic, educational, and social benefits, as well as helping to improve equity (Werquin, 2010: 7–9). An important element of the trend of validating informal and non-formal learning is the recognition that they may contribute to lifelong learning (Maier, 2012).

The conservatory tradition can be categorised mainly as formal learning since it has a well-planned curriculum, explicit teaching objectives and programme duration, specific entry and graduation requirements, and formalised learning schedules. In order to graduate, students must complete all required courses with satisfactory grades within a specified period. Upon graduation, neither the institute nor its teachers are under any obligation to teach or to introduce their students to the field. In addition to regular lessons/classes, the curriculum also includes internships within local troupes under the supervision of the institute and Cantonese opera professionals, thereby allowing students to gain performance experience. Unlike apprenticeships, students are not allocated to a particular master. Tuition is given through specialised teaching whereby the craft of Cantonese opera is subdivided into singing, basic movements, gymnastics and fencing, and acting, while each subject is taught by specialised professionals. In addition to the craft of Cantonese opera, subjects such as language and literature, history, and geography are also included in the conservatory curriculum, cultivating students’ cultural sensibilities. Although teachers are very demanding, traditional teaching accompanied by physical punishment is becoming outdated, while formal assessment is provided for credit earning. However, informal learning can also take place, for instance when students observe other artists performing and, intentionally or otherwise, imitate them.

Apprenticeship learning is quite different from that of the conservatory tradition and can be regarded as a perfect illustration of informal learning. First, the apprentice treats the master as the major role model. Limited by different methods (including observation, imitation, enquiry, and self-study), yet free from a fixed environment, the apprentice needs to grasp every learning opportunity. For instance, performing together with the master and other eminent artists is the most effective way of learning. This way of Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Lave and Wenger, 1991) allows the apprentice to learn by doing with experienced and skilful masters so that they can observe, imitate, and ultimately deviate once they are mature. The practice of apprenticeship does not have a complete curriculum, and the master decides all learning content. When necessary, the master may ask the apprentice to learn specialised skills from other masters in order to make up for the master’s limitations. Such specialised learning is similar to that of the conservatory tradition. However, the apprenticeship mode does not have a set period of learning, while the apprentice may deviate from the master’s performance when he/she is recognised by the audience. Above all, an apprenticeship is the traditional way of learning. It emphasises the concept of respecting the teacher. The master–apprentice relationship lasts for life. It is, therefore, common to see physical punishment during the teaching process. Apprenticeship learning is tough. Not only does the master believe that ‘strict teachers produce outstanding students’, but masters care about their own reputations. Ensuring the apprentice’s success is traditionally perceived as the responsibility of the master.

Community training can be seen as a kind of compromise between the apprenticeship and the conservatory teaching traditions. This type of training largely exemplifies non-formal learning, while also containing some formal learning characteristics. The specialised teaching situation is similar for both community training and the conservatory tradition that specialised instructors are hired to teach different specific areas and can be perceived as a kind of formal learning. The only difference might be the number of specialised instructors due to the scale of establishment – community training often has less instructors than a conservatory that is public funded. In community settings, students are not allocated to one particular master as their role model for learning, while the master–apprentice relationship is rather loose compared with that of the apprenticeship. Due to limitations of space and resources, the primary way of teaching and learning is through practicing, with the omission of teaching and learning about culture and other knowledge. Unlike the conservatory tradition, community training does not have a formalised training mode, curriculum, and examination structure. Teaching is carried out based on the teacher’s own requirements/standards. While community training follows a planned learning schedule/timetable, it does not have a system of rules that categorise students into different grades/years, making it flexible enough to assign students based on their ability level.

In terms of cultural norms, other than learning and performing, the apprentice must understand and observe the cultural environment and human relations. The field of Cantonese opera contains different types of human relations, including competitions. Fresh apprentices have to maintain healthy relationships with different Cantonese opera practitioners and to be humble when learning. To gain respect from colleagues, one must be able to contribute to the field without threatening another’s career. The master is responsible for passing on this type of knowledge to the apprentice. The expression ‘guiding apprentices to the field’ means to train them to understand the complexity of the profession, in the hope that they can survive and even flourish in the future. Both the conservatory and community training models rarely discuss such complexities. Instead, they normally teach their students the proper attitude and professionalism.

When it comes to the aspects of performance and career, learning and performing are placed together within the practice of apprenticeship. Apprentices are expected to learn while performing. Other than practicing, apprentices have a lot of opportunities to participate in performances. Although for most of the time they play secondary characters, the gained experience can transform them into well-rounded artists in the future that are capable of performing different types of roles and repertoires. For community training, its curriculum includes only a small number of performances. Employment is not the teacher’s main concern, because community training is aimed at providing an extra-curricular activity, instead of offering vocational training. The internship opportunity of the conservatory tradition is related to employment. Students might be able to build up connections within the field during the internship, which makes it easier for them to join a professional troupe upon graduation. Table 1 summarises the comparisons among the practices of apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory tradition.

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Table 1.

A comparison between the practice of apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory tradition.

Apprenticeship	Community training	Conservatory
Enrolment
Introduced by the master; limited ways of entry	Open enrolment	Open enrolment
Start at a very young age (no age limit)	Start at a very young age (no age limit)	Mainly admit early youths (approx. 11 years old)
Semi-involuntary learning (related to the economic environment)	Voluntary learning (related to parents)	Voluntary learning (related to the economic environment and personal factors)
Enrolment means entering the field	Learn it as a hobby	Enrolment means entering the field
Teaching mode
Informal learning mainly	Non-formal learning mainly	Formal learning mainly
Learning by doing	Learning by doing	Learning by doing/theoretical courses related to culture
One master being the major role model of learning; supplemented/supported by other specialists	No specified teacher; specialised teaching	No specified teacher; specialised teaching
Harsh training; more traditional	High teaching standard	High teaching standard
Learning period not regulated	Flexible learning progress	Learning period regulated
Cultural norm
Close master–apprentice relationship	Loose master–apprentice relationship	Loose master–apprentice relationship
Other than learning and performing, apprentices need to understand and observe the cultural environment and human relations	Focus on learning and performing; emphasise on respecting the teacher and his/her teaching	Focus on learning and performing
Performance and employment
Participate directly in professional productions, learning while performing	Public performances available but not related to employment	Establish connection with the field; internship available but might not be responsible for students’ future employment

Towards a combined model for higher education

Nowadays, the conservatory tradition is the most practiced transmission mode of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong, with community training a secondary way of passing on the mastery. The practice of apprenticeship, however, is slowly fading out. Therefore, in order to nurture future Cantonese opera professionals, transmission requires an effective teaching mode based on the conservatory tradition, beginning with a community-based introduction. I hereby propose the following transmission model, which combines the best elements of the apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory tradition approaches.

Higher education should be at the centre of transmitting Cantonese opera and may include individual Cantonese opera academies or arts schools attached to a university. The essence of the proposed model is an undergraduate programme that focuses on training Cantonese opera artists. The programme includes four key elements: students, teachers, curriculum, and internship. Student admission is one of the most important aspects of the model for it determines the quality and standard of the cohort. Training must begin at a young age in order to produce a talent that displays great virtue and mastery. Prior to entering a Cantonese opera academy, students should have already received relevant training during the primary school years. Hence, community-based juvenile Cantonese opera troupes/schools play a major role here. A Cantonese opera academy should collaborate with these juvenile troupes in the community. On the one hand, the teaching standard of these juvenile troupes will be raised by offering specialised knowledge from the academy, which guarantees a stable source of quality applicants for the academy. On the other hand, the academy can establish its own juvenile programme/troupe, selecting potential primary and secondary students to apply for its undergraduate course. This dual path of development thus ensures that there will be sufficient quality students supporting the undergraduate programme. Moreover, in order to ensure students that demonstrate potential can also enter the academy, enrolment to the undergraduate programme must be open to the public. Apart from recruiting students from juvenile troupes in the community only, the academy can also recruit students from nearby cities. The main principle is that those who meet the admission requirements should be admitted to the programme.

The source of applicants for the tertiary institutions of Cantonese opera is mainly from the field of community music. According to Higgins (2012), community music may possess three broad perspectives: ‘1) music of a community, 2) communal music making, and 3) an active intervention between a music leader or facilitator and participants’ (p. 3). In Hong Kong, some Cantonese opera artists, who are the active facilitators in the community, choose to organise children troupes and schools to nurture new artists rather than performing on stage. Those artists try to promote Cantonese opera through teaching by providing accessibility for interested children and their parents for intensive training through non-formal learning approaches. They strive for excellence in both process and product. In order to recruit potential students, the higher education sector should collaborate with these community schools and even provide further support so that mutual benefits could be maintained.

Apart from the source of students, learning is another key concept that should be discussed. Traditionally Chinese opera was transmitted through apprenticeship (Stock, 2002a). Evident in studying of transmission of Huju opera in Shanghai, Stock (2002a) found that when the apprenticeship had been completed, the pupil either became a fully signed-up member of the troupe or struck out on their own, the latter being a path that required stamina and fortitude in addition to musical technique. The master singer emerged from this challenging tradition a fully rounded performer with a distinctive and commanding personal style, central to which ‘was the ability to express a passage in a manner that struck the listener as emotionally authentic while also being aesthetically pleasing’ (p. 19). As mentioned (Stock, 2002b), more direct methods of transmission were becoming increasingly evident among Huju practitioners from the 1930s onwards, alongside taking full advantage of the various technological advancements, e.g. radio, that accompanied modern life of the time. In this constantly evolving world, opportunities for learning were there for those who were willing to grasp and capitalise upon them. This is similar to the situation of modern Hong Kong that could be adopted in the internship part of the curriculum, which will be discussed later.

The quality of teachers and their ability to teach is another key issue. The teacher must be a professional and virtuous Cantonese opera artist and needs to have close connections with the field. It is also best if the teacher is an active performer. In this way, teaching can not only be conducted while both the teacher and student are performing together, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of transmission, but by virtue of being active professionals artists will have a better understanding about the current conventions and mechanisms of the industry. This method of teaching and learning is actually similar to that of a university music department, whereby professors in music performance develop their academic careers based on their professional performing experience. Carried out in this manner, an arrangement of this type can serve as a substitute for the operational nature of the master in an apprenticeship and contribute to the professional development of the teacher at the academy. For example, Mr Yuen Siu-fai, an eminent Cantonese opera actor in Hong Kong learnt from his Master, Mr Mak Bing Wing, who was one of the most active actors on stage. During the apprenticeship, Mr Yuen remembered that he could learn by performing together with his master on stage, which was the most effective demonstration for learning (Yuen, 2012: personal communication). In addition, since the master was continuously performing on stage, his artistry was not only maintained but also developing and advancing. Teacher’s quality of performance had directly impacted on the learner, who regarded the master as a model for continuous development.

‘Tradition’ in transmission of ethnic music is as an important concept (Schippers, 2010). While there is no absolute static tradition, which is absolutely fixed and unchanged, there is also no absolute changing tradition. Authentic transmission of ethnic music, in tradition, may include apprenticeship, observation, imitation, and modelling. It is common to see the masters requesting their apprentices to model their artistry in order to keep the traditional practices. Schippers (2010) suggests that there are five distinct approaches to tradition, including: ‘tradition as a body of work, a standard with an explicit or implicit set of rules, a performance practice, a music in culture, and a mechanism of handing down music’ (p. 45). Teachers in the modern conservatory might use all these approaches to maintain a certain level of tradition of Cantonese opera, although we understand that absolute authenticity does not exist. Furthermore, in order to contextualise learning and teaching Cantonese opera, five approaches may be employed:

Trying to re-create the original context;

Curriculum is the third element of the proposed model. The curriculum of the undergraduate course ought to be regularly reviewed by professional Cantonese opera artists and academics in order to ensure its quality and standard. In addition to knowledge related to Cantonese opera, students should also study other subjects, including languages, culture, and history. This allows for the realisation of the vision of a liberal education to be emphasised by contemporary higher education. The facilitation of an all-round development is also beneficial in allowing exploration of other career paths upon completion of the course, such as arts promotion and education.

In addition to the course content, curriculum also includes the mode of learning. According to the earlier analysis, all three transmission modes emphasise specialised types of teaching. That is, by subdividing and categorising the curriculum, each individual subject/skill is taught by a specialist within a regulated temporal and spatial framework. However, such formal learning comes with certain disadvantages; for example, students become passive during the learning process because the tutors require students to follow each and every step and procedure for learning rather than offering open-ended learning tasks for students to explore proactively, and the temporal and spatial limitations can cause learning deficiencies. Informal learning can enhance students’ motivation and learning independence, encouraging them to learn/practice anytime and anywhere, free from the constraints of schedules and classrooms (Jenkins, 2011). Beckett and Hager (2002) suggest that informal learning should be closely related to the workplace environment, activity- and experience-based, aimed at solving practical problems, learner centred, and co-operative. Thus, the curriculum should put a strong emphasis on informal learning. This can be done by stressing the importance of group and individual revision, providing a personal instructor for each student, establishing a strong teacher–student relationship, offering plenty of freedom and flexibility, and giving more opportunities for students to practice self-directed learning.

The field of cultural psychology of music education may provide evidence-based teaching and learning strategies for adoption. After reviewing literature, Hallam (2011) proposes that learning refers to development of experts, who typically perceive large meaningful patterns in their domain, are fast in processing the tasks, have superior short- and long-term memory, see and represent a problem in their domain at a deeper level than novices and spend a great deal of time analysing a problem qualitatively, and possess stronger self-monitoring skills. Cantonese opera institutions may refer to those targets in designing their curricula.

Enculturation is considered another important concept in music education (Campbell, 2004, 2011). Apart from skill development, Campbell suggests that music exists in its cultural context, thus, students should be familiar with the musical context. A Cultural Prism Model is proposed for teachers in developing their curriculum, which include a series of who–what–when–where–how questions for teaching and learning (Campbell, 2004). Students should learn about the authentic context of Hong Kong Cantonese opera in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of the genre for further transmission and preservation of the art form.

The fourth element is internship. The greatest advantage of an apprenticeship is that the apprentice can participate in different types of work and performances in a troupe for a long period. In fact, such informal learning extends for the duration of study, allowing the apprentice to immerse him/herself in the professional environment. Within this environment, issues such as memorising scripts and performance anxiety can be solved sensibly. In the conservatory tradition, internship is a compromise option. Regardless of the internship duration, it cannot compare with the ‘learning by doing’ practice of an apprenticeship. Being immersed in a troupe is indispensable. Hence, having concrete and sufficient internship experience is necessary. Not only will the student gain valuable experience, but he/she will also be able to establish connections within the field before graduating from the programme. This allows the student to understand the art form’s operating procedures, which will contribute to his/her future performing career. In addition, each student should be allocated to an experienced artist (holding the title of an adjunct professor) who supervises the student’s internship and evaluates his/her performance. After completing the internship, the student’s results will be recognised by professionals, thereby allowing him/her to join and work in a troupe.

Another interpretation of internship is partnership between university and the community, which has been commonly used to engage students in the creative industries for practical experiences and knowledge. For instance, Australian university students are engaged in immersion to the aboriginal people to learn their musical culture (Bartleet et al., 2016). The partnership is involved with five parties: students, organisations in the community, faculty, administrators on the campus, and residents in the community (Bringle et al., 2009, cited in Bartleet et al. 2016). These five parties have to communicate well and share their goals across organisations so that both educational and professional training purposes could be achieved. Cantonese opera institutions may incorporate the concepts of university–community partnership in preparing their undergraduate students to obtain sufficient practical experiences for preparation of professional needs. Furthermore, the partnership may offer cultural experiences for learners’ easy adaptation in their future career (O’Sullivan, 2016), while institutionalisation of partnership between universities and community may achieve sustainability (Power et al., 2016). Internship as a university–community partnership may extend the length of time that students are engaged in learning and performing, which fulfil the requirement of lengthy immersion of practices (see Hallam, 2011).

These four elements are inseparable from the Cantonese opera industry in Hong Kong. Students should begin to establish connections with the industry as soon as they have been admitted into the academy, trying to gain an understanding of how a troupe operates through every possible means. For their part, teachers should perform regularly with troupes, thereby maintaining close contacts with the industry. The curriculum and teaching should also respond to the current situation in the field. Demands from the industry, such as the need for certain roles, ought to be reflected in the academy’s curriculum. Both the academy and the industry therefore need to work closely together. As the supervisor, the teacher should directly involve him/herself in their students’ internship. In addition to working with the students in a troupe, they should offer to teach in collaboration with the organisation’s artists and administrative staff.

Upon completion of the undergraduate programme, students are qualified to perform secondary roles in professional troupes. Nevertheless, the academy should provide graduate courses for those who want to pursue further studies in performing or who wish to conduct research in Cantonese opera. Not only will these options raise students’ artistic levels, but it will also contribute to the scholarly studies of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong and the Cantonese opera teaching profession. Graduate students who have the responsibility of researching about Cantonese opera should provide the academy with their latest research findings related to curriculum and pedagogy in order to improve the quality of teaching. Figure 1 depicts a concept map that summarises the proposal of this new transmission model of Cantonese opera in Hong Kong.

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Figure 1.

A proposed model of Cantonese opera transmission in higher education setting.

Conclusion

This study sets out to examine and analyse the inheritance patterns of the apprenticeship, community training, and conservatory traditions within Cantonese opera, and to propose a feasible and inclusive transmission model. While formal learning is recognised by the general public as the core mode of knowledge transmission within a modern society, informal and non-formal learning, both of which are valuable and effective in nurturing different aspects of the learner, should be advocated and subsumed into the curriculum. In sum, the proposed inheritance model relies on four key elements: curriculum, teachers, students, and internship, along with partnerships within the professional field. An effective inheritance process can guarantee a sufficient amount of talent to learn Cantonese opera, thereby allowing this traditional and internationally recognised Chinese art form to continue to flourish.