This study proposes an amplitude-modulation vibro-acoustic (AMVA) technique to track the evolution of thermal damage in pristine graphene mortar. In the proposed amplitude-modulation technique, the pump wave is amplitude-modulated using three different methods: (1) the pure amplitude-modulated (PAM) method, (2) the suppressive amplitude-modulated (SAM) method and (3) the transmitted amplitude-modulated (TAM) method. The nonlinear parameters , and corresponding to the PAM, SAM and TAM methods, respectively, are theoretically established and experimentally demonstrated that the nonlinear parameters associated with the material nonlinearity, and they can be used to quantitatively characterize different damage stages of thermal damage. Meanwhile, the resonant frequency (RF) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests are conducted. The linear measurements, dynamic elastic modulus obtained from RF test and ultrasonic pulse velocity collected by UPV test, are used to compare with the nonlinear parameters. The results show that the proposed AMVA technique is more sensitive and feasible to serve as the tool for thermal damage detection in cement-based material compared with the conventional RF and UPV techniques.
Roig-FloresMLucio-MartinTAlonsoMC, et al.Evolution of thermo-mechanical properties of concrete with calcium aluminate cement and special aggregates for energy storage. Cement Concr Res2021; 141: 106323.
2.
MengTChenYYingK, et al.Deterioration mechanism of concrete under long-term elevated temperature in a metallurgic environment: a case study of the Baosteel company. Case Stud Constr Mater2021; 14: e00503.
3.
ZelIYKenessarinMKichanovS, et al.Spatial distribution of graphite in cement materials used for radioactive waste conditioning: an approach to analysis of neutron tomography data. Cement Concr Compos2021; 119: 103993.
4.
HoVDNgC-TOzbakkalogluT, et al.Investigating the reinforcing mechanism and optimized dosage of pristine graphene for enhancing mechanical strengths of cementitious composites. RSC Adv2020; 10: 42777–42789.
5.
SedaghatARamMKZayedA, et al.Investigation of physical properties of graphene-cement composite for structural applications. J Compos Mater2014; 2014: 12–21.
6.
LiGZhangL. Microstructure and phase transformation of graphene-cement composites under high temperature. Compos B Eng2019; 166: 86–94.
7.
ChuH-YJiangJ-YSunW, et al.Effects of graphene sulfonate nanosheets on mechanical and thermal properties of sacrificial concrete during high temperature exposure. Cement Concr Compos2017; 82: 252–264.
8.
StaszewskiWJ. Structural health monitoring using guided ultrasonic waves. In: Advances in smart technologies in structural engineering. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2004, pp. 117–162.
9.
Van Den AbeeleKESutinACarmelietJ, et al.Micro-damage diagnostics using nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy (NEWS). Ndt E Int2001; 34: 239–248.
10.
KunduTEirasJNLiW, et al.Fundamentals of nonlinear acoustical techniques and sideband peak count. In: Nonlinear ultrasonic and vibro-acoustical techniques for nondestructive evaluation. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2019, pp. 1–88.
11.
AllenJCPNgCT. Debonding detection at adhesive joints using nonlinear lamb waves mixing. NDT E Int2022; 125: 102552.
12.
AseemANgCT. Debonding detection in rebar-reinforced concrete structures using second harmonic generation of longitudinal guided wave. NDT E Int2021; 122: 102496.
13.
ChenJYinTKimJ-Y, et al.Characterization of thermal damage in sandstone using the second harmonic generation of standing waves. Int J Rock Mech Mining Sci2017; 91: 81–89.
14.
YinTNgC-TKotousovA. Damage detection of ultra-high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete using a harmonic wave modulation technique. Constr Build Mater2021; 313: 125306.
15.
YangCChenJ. Fully noncontact nonlinear ultrasonic characterization of thermal damage in concrete and correlation with microscopic evidence of material cracking. Cement Concr Res2019; 123: 105797.
16.
NazarovVEOstrovskyLASoustovaIA, et al.Nonlinear acoustics of micro-inhomogeneous media. Phys Earth Planet Inter1988; 50: 65–73.
17.
EirasJKunduTPopovicsJ, et al.Cement-based material characterization using nonlinear single-impact resonant acoustic spectroscopy (NSIRAS). In: Nonlinear ultrasonic and vibro-acoustical techniques for nondestructive evaluation. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2019, pp. 487–508.
18.
PayanCGarnierVMoysanJ, et al.Applying nonlinear resonant ultrasound spectroscopy to improving thermal damage assessment in concrete. J Acoust Soc Am2007; 121: EL125–EL130.
19.
YimHJKimJHParkS-J, et al.Characterization of thermally damaged concrete using a nonlinear ultrasonic method. Cement Concr Res2012; 42: 1438–1446.
DonskoyDSutinAEkimovA. Nonlinear acoustic interaction on contact interfaces and its use for nondestructive testing. Ndt E Int2001; 34: 231–238.
22.
ParsonsZStaszewskiWJ. Nonlinear acoustics with low-profile piezoceramic excitation for crack detection in metallic structures. Smart Mater Struct2006; 15: 1110–1118.
23.
YoderNCAdamsDE. Vibro-acoustic modulation utilizing a swept probing signal for robust crack detection. Struct Health Monit2010; 9: 257–267.
24.
LiuBLuoZGangT. Influence of low-frequency parameter changes on nonlinear vibro-acoustic wave modulations used for crack detection. Struct Health Monit2018; 17: 218–226.
25.
ZagraiADonskoyDChudnovskyA, et al.Micro/meso scale fatigue damage accumulation monitoring using nonlinear acoustic vibro-modulation measurements. In: Testing, reliability, and application of micro-and nano-material systems IV. Washington, DC: International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2006, p. 617506.
26.
LiuPSohnHJeonI. Nonlinear spectral correlation for fatigue crack detection under noisy environments. J Sound Vibration2017; 400: 305–316.
27.
ZhaoNHuoLSongG. A nonlinear ultrasonic method for real-time bolt looseness monitoring using PZT transducer–enabled vibro-acoustic modulation. J Intell Mater Syst Struct2020; 31: 364–376.
28.
HeQLinY. Assessing the severity of fatigue crack using acoustics modulated by hysteretic vibration for a cantilever beam. J Sound Vib2016; 370: 306–318.
29.
SolodovIWackerlJPfleidererK, et al.Nonlinear self-modulation and subharmonic acoustic spectroscopyfor damage detection and location. Appl Phys Lett2004; 84: 5386–5388.
30.
AymerichFStaszewskiW. Experimental study of impact-damage detection in composite laminates using a cross-modulation vibro-acoustic technique. Struct Health Monit2010; 9: 541–553.
31.
KimSAdamsDESohnH, et al.Crack detection technique for operating wind turbine blades using vibro-acoustic modulation. Struct Health Monit2014; 13: 660–670.
32.
OoijevaarTRoggeMDLoenderslootR, et al.Vibro-acoustic modulation–based damage identification in a composite skin–stiffener structure. Struct Health Monit2016; 15: 458–472.
33.
MeoMZumpanoG. Nonlinear elastic wave spectroscopy identification of impact damage on a sandwich plate. Compos Struct2005; 71: 469–474.
34.
AymerichFStaszewskiWJ. Impact damage detection in composite laminates using nonlinear acoustics. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf2010; 41: 1084–1092.
35.
PieczonkaLZietekLKlepkaA, et al.Damage imaging in composites using nonlinear vibro‐acoustic wave modulations. Struct Control Health Monit2018; 25: e2063.
36.
ChenJJayapalanARKimJ-Y, et al.Nonlinear wave modulation spectroscopy method for ultra-accelerated alkali-silica reaction assessment. ACI Mater J2009; 106: 340.
37.
MahadevanSNealKNathP, et al.Quantitative diagnosis and prognosis framework for concrete degradation due to alkali-silica reaction. In: AIP conference proceedings. Melville, NY: AIP Publishing LLC, 2017, p. 080006.
38.
KarvePMieleSNealK, et al.Vibro-acoustic modulation and data fusion for localizing alkali–silica reaction–induced damage in concrete. Struct Health Monit2020; 19: 1905–1923.
39.
ChenJWuYYinT, et al.Characterization of concentrated and distributed cracks in concrete using a harmonic wave modulation technique. Mater Struct2018; 51: 1–10.
40.
MiróMEirasJNPovedaP, et al.Detecting cracks due to steel corrosion in reinforced cement mortar using intermodulation generation of ultrasonic waves. Constr Build Mater2021; 286: 122915.
41.
KlepkaAPieczonkaLDziedziechK, et al.Structural damage detection based on nonlinear acoustics: application examples. In: Nonlinear ultrasonic and vibro-acoustical techniques for nondestructive evaluation. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2019, pp. 139–174.
42.
ThurstonRShapiroM. Interpretation of ultrasonic experiments on finite‐amplitude waves. J Acoust Soc Am1967; 41: 1112–1125.
43.
Van Den AbeeleKEA. Elastic pulsed wave propagation in media with second‐or higher‐order nonlinearity. Part I. Theoretical framework. J Acoust Soc Am1996; 99: 3334–3345.
44.
VidlerJKotousovANgC-T. Effective elastic properties of a weakly nonlinear particulate composite. Int J Non-linear Mech2022; 141: 103949.
45.
KimJ-YJacobsLQuJ. Nonlinear ultrasonic techniques for material characterization. Nonlinear ultrasonic and vibro-acoustical techniques for nondestructive evaluation. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2019, pp. 225–261.
46.
ASTM C215-19. Standard test method for fundamental transverse, longitudinal, and torsional resonant frequencies of concrete specimens. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2019.
47.
ASTM C597-09. Standard test method for pulse velocity through concrete. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, 2016.
48.
Moreno-NavarroFSol-SánchezMGámizF, et al.Mechanical and thermal properties of graphene modified asphalt binders. Constr Build Mater2018; 180: 265–274.
49.
TantawyM. Effect of high temperatures on the microstructure of cement paste. J Mater Sci Chem Eng2017; 5: 33–48.
50.
FarageMSercombeJGalleC. Rehydration and microstructure of cement paste after heating at temperatures up to 300 C. Cement Concr Res2003; 33: 1047–1056.
51.
OuyangJZhaoJTanY. Modeling mechanical properties of cement asphalt emulsion mortar with different asphalt to cement ratios and temperatures. J Mater Civil Eng2018; 30: 04018263.
52.
Alarcon-RuizLPlatretGMassieuE, et al.The use of thermal analysis in assessing the effect of temperature on a cement paste. Cement Concr Res2005; 35: 609–613.
53.
AlizadehRBeaudoinJJRakiL. Mechanical properties of calcium silicate hydrates. Mater Struct2011; 44: 13–28.
54.
GalléCSercombeJ. Permeability and pore structure evolution of silicocalcareous and hematite high-strength concretes submitted to high temperatures. Mater Struct2001; 34: 619–628.
55.
QiuZChenYKangY, et al.Investigation into periodic signal-based dithering modulations for suppression sideband vibro-acoustics in PMSM used by electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Energy Convers2020; 36: 1787–1796.
56.
HeYXiaoYSuZ, et al.Contact acoustic nonlinearity effect on the vibro-acoustic modulation of delaminated composite structures. Mech Syst Signal Process2022; 163: 108161.
