Understanding young children’s attitudes towards reading in relation to their digital literacy activities at home

Abstract

The effect of digital literacy practices upon young children’s learning is a contentious and growing area for research and debate. Nowadays, children encounter many different types of texts through their everyday engagement with digital technologies. The study reported here investigated the relationships between 6 and 7-year-old children’s home digital literacy practices, parental views about the use of technology and children’s attitudes towards reading as perceived by the children and their parents. A total of 105 children and their parents, from two primary schools in Istanbul participated in this study. Parents completed a questionnaire about their views on the use of technology, their children’s digital literacy experiences and their perceptions of their children’s reading attitudes, while the children engaged in individual interviews. The results from this study indicate that children’s attitudes towards reading are significantly related to both the frequency of their engagement in digital literacy activities in their homes and their parents’ perception of their child’s attitudes to reading. The findings suggest that parents can support children’s enjoyment in reading by engaging in both digital and non-digital print experiences with their children.

Keywords

digital literacy early childhood early literacy family literacy reading technology

Introduction

The late 1990s brought a shift towards a more balanced view of reading with researchers and teachers including an emphasis on motivation as well as cognition (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Gambrell and Morrow, 1996). Research has shown that children’s positive attitudes towards reading have been identified as an important impetus for increasing reading engagement and the frequency of reading, with perceived benefits for literacy development (Snow et al., 1998). Applegate and Applegate (2010) found a positive relationship between engagement and motivation, with motivated readers reading more and attaining higher reading achievements than their less motivated peers. Afflerbach and Cho (2011) argued the importance of measuring motivation-related factors towards reading; this study has adopted a broader lens of inquiry into reading development, by focusing upon motivation-related factors such as engagement and attitudes.

Research identified that children’s reading enjoyment decreases across the school years, raising concerns about how child motivation and engagement in literacy activities can be maintained (Guthrie and Wigfield, 2000). Some researchers advocate that technology has a positive impact on children’s motivation and engagement in literacy acquisition (Lankshear and Knobel, 2003). Kamil et al. (2000) argued that technology use has the potential to support children’s motivation to read; however, a limited amount of research has been published in relation to the use of technology and young children’s attitudes towards reading.

Digital technology resources have many features that can foster children’s interests in on-screen reading activities. For example, touch screen tablets are lightweight, simple to use and provide an intuitive interface for children (Neumann and Neumann, 2014). Also, the interactive multimedia features of digital tablets stimulate children’s sensory systems and provide them with instant feedback on their input, offering learning opportunities (McManis and Gunnewig, 2012).

Findings reported in PISA (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2011) suggested that middle-school students’ motivation and engagement in reading should be supported through technology use. They identified that ‘students who reported frequent online searching-information activities also read a diversity of print material more frequently, and more often reported enjoying reading’ (p. 137). However, the extent to which younger children’s use of technology supports their attitudes towards reading in the early years is unknown. Just as Gambrell (2006) argued the importance of measuring children’s motivation for reading in relation to the use of technology, this research was developed to contribute to further understanding young children’s literacy development in relation to their use of technology at home.

This article focuses specifically on examining children’s attitudes towards reading in relation to their engagement in digital literacy activities (DLA) at home. Previous research measuring children’s reading attitudes has favoured gathering parents’ perceptions of their child’s reading activities and enjoyment (e.g. Hume et al., 2015). However, in this study, the children’s views were also valued and they were interviewed about their attitudes towards and their enjoyment of reading.

Digital literacy

In the 1980s, research began to recognise the influence of technology on the plurality of literacy practices. Graff (1987) stated, ‘What is needed is a broader view of reading and writing that integrates and emphasises the many abilities in a context of a changing world that requires their development and use’ (p. 39). A significant shift took place in literacy and education in the late 1990s, with the conceptualisation of literacy as involving multimodal texts (Flewitt et al., 2014). Accompanying this rhetoric was the introduction of new terms such as multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996), multimodal literacies (Kress, 2003) and the new literacies (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011).

Gilster (1997) defined digital literacy as the ability to understand and use information in different formats from computers, but Eyman (2006) extended this stating that ‘the literacy practices referred to are enacted in digital spaces’ (p. 185). Digital literacy can refer to social practices which include reading, writing and multimodal meaning making through the use of digital technology (Sefton-Green et al., 2016).

The very nature of literacy and its characteristics were remoulded as the processing of different kinds of text in digital technologies was identified as functionally different from the linear reading of printed texts (Lankshear and Knobel, 2003). Kress (2003) demonstrated that digital texts aren’t necessarily formatted to be read from left-to-right and that other modes such as signs, symbols, sound, animation and images accompany text (Kress, 2010). Also acknowledged was the notion that literacy can be extended to contexts without written language, such as watching movies or playing video games, where a child interprets symbols to construct meaning in multimodal literacy activities (e.g. Jewitt, 2008). In a similar vein, this study adopted a broader notion of literacy by incorporating a focus on settings that present linear written text (children’s reading of printed matter) as well as settings that do not necessarily present written text (children’s use of digital resources).

This study emanates from a social constructivist perspective, which emphasises that learning occurs in situated socio-cultural contexts and that knowledge construction is embedded in the context of social interaction (Rogoff, 1991). From this perspective, literacy is embedded in social practice (Street, 1995) and is mediated through interaction with language and cultural artefacts (i.e. objects, images, symbols, discourses). Cultural artefacts play an important role in regulating children’s cognition, emotion and behaviour (Bartlett, 2005). In today’s information society, children engage with cultural artefacts through their use of digital devices and their learning is supported by their membership in socially interactive communities. As mediators of cultural artefacts, the use of digital devices has the potential to promote children’s engagement in literacy activities and to influence their attitudes towards literacy (Flewitt et al., 2014).

A social constructive view of literacy development implies that motivation and attitudes towards reading are social constructs which are deeply rooted in the social context in which reading is meaningful (Hidi, 2001; Oldfather and Dahl, 1994). Viewed through this lens, children’s attitudes towards reading originate in the affective and socio-cognitive processes that children experience as they engage in the social construction of meaning. Thus, this research into children’s attitudes towards reading focused on children’s DLA in their homes.

Children’s DLA

Children’s understandings of literacy emerge from birth through their social interactions and experiences of print in their environment (Clay, 1993; Teale and Sulzby, 1996). Today, print is present in children’s everyday home environments in printed and digital forms. A growing body of research shows that the literacy practices of young children and their families are characterised by the use of digital technologies in their everyday lives (Flewitt et al., 2014). Children encounter many different types of texts through their engagement with digital technologies. Due to the increased exposure and use of technologies, young children often begin formal schooling with knowledge about print learned through their interactions with digital devices (Plowman et al., 2012) and with varied experience in reading digital texts at home (Neumann, 2014). Consequently, researchers have started to examine children’s practices with digital technology in their homes (Livingstone et al., 2014).

It is widely accepted that children’s meaning making is built up through printed texts, sound, visual images and symbols (Burnett, 2010), to the extent that ‘literacy is now part of wider multimodal communication practices’ (Nutbrown et al., 2016: 3). Prensky (2001) has argued that children born in the 21st century are digital natives; natural users of digital technologies and there is agreement that greater attention should be paid to both their digital and non-digital print experiences (Levy, 2009).

Children are exposed to new forms of literacy in their homes such as those found on mobile media devices (Harrison and McTavish, 2016). Furthermore, there is evidence that children’s awareness of print is enhanced through their use of digital devices. For example, Livingstone et al. (2014) observed 6-year-old children’s use of touch screen tablets at home. They found that children identified basic words on touch screens and could even type words on the Internet (e.g. Google or YouTube).

Young children’s literacy development can be supported through parental scaffolding when using digital devices at home (Marsh, 2004). Kucirkova et al. (2013) observed a mother and her 33-month-old child using an iPad to create a story together. The mother pointed to pictures and words on the iPad while asking the child questions. By doing so, it was found that the mother supported her child’s understanding that print, images and sounds convey meaning. Although studies have shown that digital technology is an essential part of children’s lives, to date, few studies have investigated the role of technology in motivating children to read.

Research suggests that interacting with digital technologies has the potential to positively impact children’s language development, vocabulary learning and reading motivation (Burnett, 2010; Larson, 2010). With regard to reading motivation, digital texts were found to be an appealing medium for reading for children (Thoermer and Williams, 2012). Similarly, Flewitt et al. (2014) observed that young children were highly engaged and motivated to create their own stories using an iPad to take photographs and to write. During interviews, class teachers reported that the children were more highly motivated when they engaged in literacy activities involving the iPad. They also found that using the iPad as a tool for creating stories, supported children in demonstrating more advanced literacy skills. Key factors influencing the children’s motivation were found to be the features that the iPads offered that supported children’s independent work and the interactive nature of the apps which increased children’s concentration (Flewitt et al., 2014).

Another way in which technology provides useful opportunities for literacy development is through interactive digital books. Some researchers have argued that children’s interactions with e-books can have a positive impact on their attitudes towards reading, especially among children_that were struggling with reading_(Glasgow, 1996; Larson, 2010). For example, the National Literacy Trust’s report (Picton and Clark, 2015) showed that children enjoyed reading more when they read both digital and printed texts. More recently, Ciampa (2012, 2016) found that electronic books had a positive effect on beginning readers’ motivation to read with most first-grade children preferring e-books over printed books. Children’s enjoyment of e-book reading was found to be related to the accessibility features and reader-friendliness of the iPads. This is in line with some studies suggesting that using technology can be a motivating way to engage children. However, there remains a dearth of information, specifically on the relationship between children’s use of technology and their attitudes towards reading. Given the importance of children’s reading motivation and attitudes upon their literacy development (Schiefele et al., 2012), this research project was developed to address this important gap in the research, to investigate the relationship between children’s DLA and their enjoyment in reading during early years.

Parental beliefs about the use of technology by children

Studies focusing on children’s technology use in their home environment have shown that family context affects technology use (Edwards et al., 2017). Plowman (2015) suggested that the use of technologies by children in the home setting is significantly influenced by parental beliefs. Similarly, Lauricella et al. (2015) found that children’s media use in their family context was strongly related to parents’ use of technology and the beliefs they hold about the role of digital technology for children.

Researchers examining parental perceptions of the role of digital technology in their children’s lives have shown that many parents have positive attitudes towards the use of digital technologies (Vittrup et al., 2016). In their study, parents of 2–7-year-old children believed that children’s use of technology was important for their development. Similarly, Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2017) surveyed parents of 3–6-year-olds about their perceptions of technology and found that most believed that using digital technology could have benefits for children’s cognitive and social development. Educational games were valued for supporting children’s learning and video calling to family was valued for enhancing communication skills.

On the other hand, Chaudron et al.’s (2015) study showed that some parents did not associate the use of digital technology with learning, while others valued it but found that child use could be problematic and should be carefully controlled by parents. Families with these views tended to limit children’s engagement with digital technologies and restricted the number of digital devices available in their home. Importantly, this research (Chaudron et al., 2015) suggests that understanding the nature of the family context is important because children’s use of technology in the home setting can be influenced by parental beliefs and experiences.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to further investigate the role of digital technology in supporting children’s literacy development, particularly whether children’s home digital literacy practices were related to their attitudes towards reading during the early years. We investigated the relationships between children’s participation in DLA at home, parents’ views on technology, parents’ perceived child attitudes towards reading and children’s self-reports about their attitudes towards reading.

Method

Participants

We sought to work with schools and families in the Atakoy region of Istanbul, which is characterised as middle-to-upper socio-economic status (SES), as families were considered as having the potential to afford and access technology in their homes. Primary school principals from local government schools were informed about the study and two schools decided to participate. Between them, there were four classes of students at the kindergarten level¹ and seven classes at Year 1 level (first year of schooling).

Information was sent out to the parents of 350 children, 105 of whom agreed to participate with their child. Of these children, 51 (48.6%) were female and 54 (51.4%) were male. Their ages ranged from 5 years, 1 month to 7 years, 2 months with a median of 6 years, 7 months. Most children were from two-parent homes (95.2%) and 4.8 per cent lived with single parents. A total of 91 mothers and 14 fathers completed the Parents Digital Literacy Questionnaire (PDLQ). The families spoke Turkish as their main language and English was either their second or additional language.

Data collection

This study employed two methods of data collection: a newly developed PDLQ specifically designed for this study, and the Reading Attitude Scale (RAS), which was based on that used by McKenna and Kear (1990), but adapted to better suit the samples of younger children in this study. The study relied heavily on parent’s perceptions and their children’s self-reports about motivation for reading. It should be noted that each of these aspects brings with it its own threats to validity. For example, parents and children may not be equally free from social desirability effects in their reports.

PDLQ

PDLQ was especially developed for this study to identify and measure three attributes. It should be noted that the PDLQ was written in Turkish and the findings were translated by the researcher. The 34-item questionnaire was organised around these three areas:

Children’s DLA undertaken in the home (20 items)

Parents’ attitudes towards technology (5 items)

Parents’ perception of their child’s attitude towards reading (9 items).

For each question in relation to the children’s DLA the parent was asked to indicate the frequency of how often their child engaged in the activities on a 5-point scale. The scale used the following: 0 = never, 1 = occasionally, 2 = sometimes, 3 = usually and 4 = always.

Each question in the section about parents’ attitudes towards technology, asked the parent to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with the statement on a 5-point scale. The scale used the following: 0 = strongly not agree, 1 = do not agree, 2 = neutral, 3 = agree and 4 = strongly agree. Finally, in order to identify parents’ perceptions of their child’s attitudes towards reading, they were asked to rate their view of their child’s enjoyment in reading activities on a 5-point scale. The scale used the following: 0 = never, 1 = occasionally, 2 = sometimes, 3 = usually and 4 = always.

The RAS

Children’s attitudes towards reading were measured by the RAS. RAS was adapted from a reading attitude scale developed by McKenna and Kear (1990) which used a student-friendly pictorial response format that appealed to children and was comprehensible even in the early years of schooling (McKenna and Kear, 1990). More recently, McKenna et al. (2012) designed the survey of adolescent reading attitudes targeting middle and secondary grade students’ attitudes towards reading in print and digital settings. This study borrowed and adapted some of the items used in Mckenna et al’.s (2012) scale.

The 10-item scale in the RAS was designed to assess the child’s enjoyment of reading in both print and digital settings. Each child participant was guided through the RAS individually by the researcher. At the beginning of the activity, the child was asked if they were familiar with a tablet and computers, for example, iPad. Children were shown two different stuffed toy animals by the researcher, who explained that these animals did not feel the same about some activities. The toys were assigned roles and attitudes to each RAS item. In one item, for example, the child was told that one animal liked reading a book in their free time but the other animal did not enjoy reading a book in their free time. Then the child was asked, ‘How do you feel when you read a book in your free time?’ and they pointed to a picture of very unhappy, unhappy, happy or very happy face on a piece of paper. Responses were scored on a 4-point scale indicating whether the child liked or disliked the activity. The scale used the following: 1 = very unhappy, 2 = unhappy, 3 = happy and 4 = very happy.

It is noteworthy that the majority of research studies examining children’s attitudes towards reading have been conducted with older primary or elementary school children (Klauda and Wigfield, 2012); however, instruments appropriate for measuring the reading attitudes of younger children are lacking. Although few studies have used pre-school children’s reports to measure their enjoyment in reading, the studies in which young children’s reports have been used indicate evidence of reliability and validity (e.g. Saracho, 1988). It appears likely that young children can be accurate informants and they are able to report their interest in reading-related activities.

Procedures

Data were collected during January and February of 2017. Printed copies of consent forms and PDLQ were distributed by staff for children to take home. Parents permitting their child to participate completed the consent form and questionnaire and returned them to the school. In all, 44 per cent of parents returned the consent form and questionnaire.

With the support of the teacher, chairs and a table were designated for children to undertake the RAS individually with the researcher in the comfort of their own classroom. The activity (approx. 10 minutes) took place during quiet learning periods with minimal distractions.

Data analysis

The data were analysed using the SPSS analytical computer program and the PLS approach to path modelling was used using SmartPLS version 2.0 software (Ringle et al., 2005).

Item analysis of the PDLQ was undertaken using principal component analysis. In the case of the 20 items targeting children’s DLA, 16 items were found to load upon this component. This is reassuring in that it indicates that all 16 items are tapping into the same trait. Four items (talking with the child about how she spent her day. Talking with the child about the story during reading. Telling stories to the child. Reading electronic books to the child. Talking with the child during reading e-book to the child failed to load clearly into this factor at greater than 0.3. Once these items were removed, a satisfactory resolution was evident, accounting for 35.3 per cent of the variance (see Table 1 in Appendix 1).

In the case of the five items targeting parents’ negative attitudes towards technology, all five items were found to load upon a single component accounting for 46.1 per cent of the variance (see Table 2 in Appendix 1).

In the case of the nine items targeting parents’ perceived child attitudes towards reading, seven items were found to load upon this component remarkably strongly. However, two items (My child already knows how to read. My child has higher interest in reading digital books than printed books) failed to load into this component. These items were removed based on a low factor loading (<0.3). The 7-item resolution accounted for 38 per cent of the variance (See Table 3 in Appendix 1).

In the case of the 10 items targeting children’s responses on the RAS, a satisfactory resolution was evident based upon 6 items. Four items (reading with tablet, reading a book with mom at home, playing with tablet, using tablet to spend time on the weekend) failed to load into the component, because they accounted for a ceiling score. The 6-item resolution accounted for 33.6 per cent of the variance (see Table 4 in Appendix 1).

Data analyses included correlation analyses and path modelling analysis about the relationships among children’s digital literacy practices, parents’ negative attitudes towards technology and children’s attitudes towards reading. Descriptive statistics were calculated, and means and standard deviations for each of the measures are presented in Table 5 (see Appendix 1). Following on from factor analysis and reliability analysis, the items were aggregated to generate construct scores.

The extent to which children engage in DLA is indicated by an average score of 19.5. This score is based on the summed scale values of the 16 items in the PDLQ. In terms of parents’ negative attitudes towards technology, the total score is based on the summed scale values of the five items, and it is indicated by an average score of 10.9. The extent to which parents reported perceived child attitudes towards reading is indicated by an average score of 21 based on the summed scale values of the seven items in the questionnaire.

Children’s scores on the RAS ranged from 11 to 24 and the mean was 18.5. There was no substantive difference between females and males with regard to their scores on the RAS. Females’ mean for RAS was 18.7 (n = 51) and males’ mean was 18.3 (n = 54). This study failed to document any significant difference between girls’ and boys’ attitudes towards reading.

Findings

Contributions of children’s DLA to children’s attitudes towards reading

Interrelations between children’s RAS scores, parental reports on children’s digital literacy practices, parents’ negative attitudes towards technology and parents’ perceived child attitudes towards reading are shown in Table 6 (see Appendix 1). It should be noted that all child participants had familiarity with tablets or laptop/computers. First, the research aimed to discover whether there was any relationship between children’s DLA and their attitudes towards reading. As shown in Table 5, children’s DLA was found to demonstrate a strong positive correlation with their scores on RAS, r (103) = .38, p = .000. This positive significant correlation suggests that, when children are provided with more frequent use of DLA at home, they are more likely to enjoy reading printed and digital texts.

Second, the research aimed to identify if there was any relationship between parents that hold negative views about the role of technology and the frequency with which their children would engage in DLA. As was shown in Table 5 (see Appendix 1), parents’ negative attitudes towards technology was found to demonstrate a strong negative correlation with children’s DLA, r (103) = −.504, p = .000. This strong negative correlation suggests that, when parents hold negative attitudes about the role of technology for young children’s learning, their children engage in DLA less frequently.

Finally, there was a low association between parents’ perceived child attitudes towards reading and their children’s scores on the RAS (r (103) = .23, p = .038). This could be due to the sample size. Although the correlation was relatively small, it still suggests that children’s self-reported enjoyment in literacy-related activities can to some extent be detected by their parents. The relationship is accounted for by speculating that when children enjoy reading, they may engage in reading-related activities in the home, although this notion is speculative.

The relationships between children’s attitudes towards reading and parental factors were further analysed through path modelling procedures on SmartPLS. Correlation analyses indicated that relevant constructs are DLA, parents’ negative attitudes towards technology and parents’ perceived child reading attitudes. The average variance extracted (AVE) of children’s DLA was .42 with a Cronbach’s alpha of .84. The AVE of parents’ perceived child reading attitudes was .37 with a Cronbach’s alpha of .68. The significance of the correlation between children’s DLA at home and their attitudes towards reading was supported by PLS path modelling techniques (path coefficient of .45, t = 3.9, p < .05). The relationships between parental variables and children’s scores on the RAS accounted for 26 per cent of the variance (see Figure 1). It can be noted that child gender did not emerge as a significant variable in the analyses.

Figure 1.

The relationships between parental variables and children’s scores on the RAS.

Discussion

This study documented findings relating to 6–7-year-old children’s attitudes towards reading and their use of digital technologies in the home. This is an important area for investigation because reading is regarded as one of the key areas of literacy development for young children (Teale and Sulzby, 1986), with implications in particular for their subsequent literacy progress (Ecalle et al., 2006). The present research suggests that parents can support children’s attitudes towards reading by providing DLA outside of school hours and in the home.

A social constructivist view emphasises that children actively construct knowledge by interacting with their environment, and living in a socio-cultural context that conveys meaning to them (Rogoff, 1991). From birth, children engage in DLA in their everyday life. This study evidenced a relationship between children’s engagement in DLA and their attitudes towards reading.

In line with a growing body of research studies into digital technology and early literacy, the findings of this study suggest that incorporating technology into children’s everyday activities in their homes offers promising opportunities for their reading development (Flewitt et al., 2014). These findings about the relationship between children’s reading attitudes and children’s engagement with DLA are consistent with researchers who suggested a link between the two variables (Ciampa, 2016; Glasgow, 1996; Larson, 2010).

The results from this study showed that young children are more likely to have a desire to read when digital technology is used at home. This finding is consistent with other researchers who argued that digital environments provide many affordances that can have potential for motivating children because they reflect children’s out-of-school literacy identities (Flewitt et al., 2014). It can be argued that experience with digital technology can help children become engaged readers and possibly support children who experience reading difficulties. Although the findings of this study are not generalisable, it contributes to the growing body of research that suggests a positive relationship between children’s use of digital technology and their enjoyment in reading.

This study also explored the relationship between parents’ negative attitude towards technology use by children and the use of children’s DLA in the home. Previous researchers have demonstrated that children’s use of technology in their family context relates to parental beliefs about the role of technology for young children (Plowman, 2015); however, what is unique is that this study was conducted in a different context; Istanbul, Turkey. The study’s findings revealed that parents’ negative attitudes towards technology were negatively related to the level of children’s technology use, with parents limiting the frequency of children’s DLA in their home.

Finally, there was a positive correlation between parents’ perceptions of their child’s attitude towards reading and the children’s self-report on their attitudes towards reading. This concurs with other studies such as Baker and Scher’s (2002) study of 6-year-olds in Baltimore, USA, where they found a link between parent reports and children’s self-evaluation of their attitudes towards reading. This relationship suggests that the parents in this study had a fairly accurate perception of their own child’s attitude towards reading. Furthermore, children that reported enjoying reading activities also chose to engage in digital literacy-related activities in the home, which might in turn lead to enhancing their reading development and literacy learning.

Conclusion

Children’s early experiences in their homes play an important role in their literacy development. The results reported here have highlighted that children’s use of digital technologies in their homes can contribute to their interest in reading during the early years of schooling.

The primary contribution of this research is further documenting the role that technology can play in impacting young children’s attitudes towards reading. The relationships between digital technology and children’s reading attitudes were especially of interest, given that children’s attitudes towards reading have been reported as a predictor of the amount of time they spend reading (Petscher, 2010).

While the research on cognitive aspects of reading is extensive, there is increasing recognition of the important role that children’s attitudes towards reading plays in helping them learn to read. An understanding of the factors that influence children’s attitudes towards reading has been of concern to educators and researchers, since children’s enjoyment in reading triggers their desire to read more frequently, which might in turn relate to their reading development. Future research can explore the long-term effects of children’s engagement in DLA on their reading attitudes.

The findings from this study are valuable for consideration, particularly by primary school and early childhood teachers and parents. Since the use of digital technologies has become typical in many homes, families can be informed about the potential of using digital learning activities to support their children’s literacy development while at home. It is important for parents and teachers to be aware that using technology and engaging in digital learning activities in the home affords young children with the opportunity to develop positive attitudes towards reading and the motivation to engage in future reading activities.

Footnotes

Appendix 1

Table 6.

Correlations between children’s attitudes towards reading and parental factors.

Construct	2	3	4
1. Children’s digital literacy activities (DLA)	−.504**	−.227	.385**
2. Parents’ anti-technology views		−.138	.195
3. Parents’ perceived child attitudes towards reading			.233*
4. Children’s attitudes towards reading (RAS)

n = 105.

p < .05.

p < .01.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes

References

Afflerbach

Cho

(2011) The classroom assessment of reading. In: Kamil

Pearson

Moje

(eds) Handbook of Reading Research, vol. 4. New York: Routledge, pp. 487–517.

Applegate

(2010) A study of thoughful literacy and the motivation to read. The Reading Teacher 64(4): 226–234.

Baker

Scher

(2002) Beginning readers’ motivation for reading in relation to parental beliefs and home reading experiences. Reading Psychology 23(4): 239–269.

Bartlett

(2005) Identity work and cultural artefacts in literacy learning and use: a sociocultural analysis. Language and Education 19(1): 1–9.

Burnett

(2010) Technology and literacy in early childhood educational settings: a review of research. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 10(3): 247–270.

Chaudron

Beutel

Navarrete

et al . (2015) Young Children (0-8) and Digital Technology: A Qualitative Exploratory Study across Seven Countries. Available at: http://www.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/research/ToddlersAndTablets/RelevantPublications/Young-Children-(0-8)-and-Digital-Technology.pdf

Ciampa

(2012) Reading in the digital age: using electronic books as a teaching tool for beginning readers. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology 38(2): 1–26.

Ciampa

(2016) Motivating grade 1 children to read: exploring the role of choice, curiosity, and challenge in mobile Ebook. Reading Psychology 37(5): 665–705.

Clay

(1993) Reading Recovery: A Guidebook for Teachers in Training. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

10.

Csikszentmihalyi

(1991) Literacy and intrinsic motivation. In: Graubard

(ed.) Literacy: An Overview by Fourteen Experts. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, pp. 115–140

11.

Ecalle

Magnan

Gibert

(2006) Class size effects on literacy skills and literacy interest in first grade: a large-scale investigation. Journal of School Psychology 44(3): 191–209.

12.

Edwards

Henderson

Gronn

et al . (2017) Digital disconnect or digital difference? A socioecological perspective on young children’s technology use in the home and the early childhood centre. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 26(1): 1–17.

13.

Eyman

(2006) Digital literac(ies), digital discourses, and communities of practice: literacy practices in virtual environments. In: Purcell-Gates

(ed.) Cultural Studies of Literacy Practices. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 181–195.

14.

Flewitt

Messer

Kucirkova

(2014) New directions for early literacy in a digital age: the iPad. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 15: 283–310.

15.

Gambrell

(2006) Technology and the engaged literacy. In: McKenna

Labbo

Kiefer

et al . (eds) International Handbook of Literacy and Technology, vol. 2. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 289–294.

16.

Gambrell

Morrow

(1996) Creating motivating contexts for literacy learning. In: Baker

Afflerbach

Reinking

(eds) Developing Engaged Readers in School and Home Communities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 115–136.

17.

Gilster

(1997) Digital Literacy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

18.

Glasgow

(1996) It’s my turn! Part II: motivating young readers using CD-ROM storybooks. Learning and Leading with Technology 24(4): 18–22.

19.

Graff

(1987) The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

20.

Group

(1996) A pedagogy of multiliteracies: designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review 66(1): 60–92.

21.

Guthrie

Wigfield

(2000) Engagement and motivation in reading. In: Kamil

Mosenthal

(eds) Handbook of Reading Research, vol. 3. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 403–422.

22.

Harrison

McTavish

(2016) ‘i’Babies: infants’ and toddlers’ emergent language and literacy in a digital culture of iDevices. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 18: 163–188.

23.

Hidi

(2001) Interest, reading, and learning: theoretical and practical considerations. Educational Psychology Review 13(3): 191–209.

24.

Hume

Lonigan

McQueen

(2015) Children’s literacy interest and its relation to parents’ literacy-promoting practices. Journal of Research in Reading 38(2): 172–193.

25.

Jewitt

(2008) Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms. Review of Research in Education 32(1): 241–267.

26.

Kamil

Intrator

Kim

(2000) The effects of other technologies on literacy and literacy learning. In: Kamil

Mosenthal

Reason

et al . (eds) Handbook of Reading Research, vol. 3. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 771–788.

27.

Klauda

Wigfield

(2012) Relations of perceived parent and friend support for recreational reading with children’s reading motivations. Journal of Literacy Research 44(1): 3–44.

28.

Kostyrka-Allchorne

Cooper

Simpson

(2017) Touchscreen generation: children’s current media use, parental supervision methods and attitudes towards contemporary media. Acta Paediatrica 106(4): 654–662.

29.

Kress

(2003) Literacy in the New Media. London: Routledge.

30.

Kress

(2010) Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. London: Routledge.

31.

Kucirkova

Messer

Sheehy

et al . (2013) Sharing personalised stories on iPads: a close look at one parent-child interaction. Literacy 47(3): 115–122.

32.

Lankshear

Knobel

(2003) New technologies in early childhood literacy research: a review of research. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 3(1): 59–82.

33.

Lankshear

Knobel

(2011) New Literacies: Everyday Practices and Social Learning. 3rd ed. New York: Open University Press.

34.

Larson

(2010) Digital readers: the next chapter in e-book reading and response. The Reading Teacher 64(1): 15–22.

35.

Lauricella

Wartella

Rideout

(2015) Young children’s screen time: the complex role of parent and child factors. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 36: 11–17.

36.

Levy

(2009) ‘You have to understand words…but not read them: young children becaming readers in a digital age. Journal of Research in Reading 32(1): 75–91.

37.

Livingstone

Marsh

Plowman

et al . (2014) Young children (0-8) and digital technology: a qualitative exploratory study national report – UK. Luxembourg: Joint Research Center, European Commission.

38.

McKenna

Kear

(1990) Measuring attitude toward reading: a new tool for teachers. Reading Teacher 43(9): 626–639.

39.

McKenna

Conradi

Lawrence

et al . (2012) Reading attitudes of middle school students: results of a U.S. survey. Reading Research Quartely 47(3): 283–306.

40.

McManis

Gunnewig

(2012) Finding the education in educational technology with early learners. Young Children 67(3): 14–24.

41.

Marsh

(2004) The techno-literacy practices of young children. Journal of Early Childhood Research 2(1): 51–66.

42.

Neumann

(2014) An examination of touch screen tablets and emergent literacy in Australian pre-school children. Australian Journal of Education 58(2): 109–122.

43.

Neumann

(2014) Touch screen tablets and emergent literacy. Early Childhood Education Journal 42(4): 231–239.

44.

Nutbrown

Clough

Levy

et al . (2016) Families’ roles in children’s literacy in the UK throughout the 20th century. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy 17: 551–569.

45.

OECD (2011) PISA 2009 Results: Students on Line: Digital Technologies and Performance, vol. 6. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/48270093.pdf (accessed 15 February 2017).

46.

Oldfather

Dahl

(1994) Toward a social constructivist reconceptualization of intrinsic motivation for literacy learning. Journal of Reading Behavior 26(2): 139–158.

47.

Petscher

(2010) A meta-analysis of the relationship between student attitudes towards reading and achievement in reading. Journal of Research in Reading 33(4): 335–355.

48.

Picton

Clark

(2015) The impact of Ebooks on the Reading Motivation and Reading skills of children and young people: A study of schools using RM books. London: National Literacy Trust.

49.

Plowman

(2015) Researching young children’s everyday uses of technology in the family home. Interacting with Computers 27(1): 36–46.

50.

Plowman

Stevenson

Stephen

et al . (2012) Preschool children’s learning with technology at home. Computers & Education 59(1): 30–37.

51.

Prensky

(2001) Digital natives, digital immigrants part 1. On the Horizon 9(5):1–6.

52.

Ringle

Wende

Will

(2005) Smartpls (2.0). Hamburg: University of Hamburg.

53.

Rogoff

(1991) Social interaction as apprenticeship in thinking: guided participation in spatial planning. In: Resnick

Levine

Teasley

(eds) Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 349–364.

54.

Saracho

(1988) Preschool reading attitudes scale. Early Child Development and Care 37: 93–108.

55.

Schiefele

Schaffner

Möller

et al . (2012) Dimensions of reading motivation and their relation to reading behavior and competence. Reading Research Quartely 47(4): 427–463.

56.

Sefton-Green

Marsh

Erstad

et al . (2016) Establishing a Research Agenda for the Digital Literacy Practices of Young Children: A White Paper for COST Action IS 1410. Available at: http://digilitey.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/DigiLitEYWP.pdf

57.

Snow

Burns

Griffin

(1998) Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

58.

Street

(1995) Social Literacies: Critical Approaches to Literacy in Development, Ethnography and Education. Harlow: Pearson Education.

59.

Teale

Sulzby

(1986) Emergent literacy as a perspective for examining how young children become readers and writers. In: Teale

Sulzby

(eds) Emergent Literacy: Reading and Writing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, pp. 7–25.

60.

Teale

Sulzby

(1996) Emergent literacy: new perspectives. In: Robinson

McKenna

Wedman

(eds) Issues and Trends in Literacy Instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, pp. 139–143.

61.

Thoermer

Williams

(2012) Using digital texts to promote fluent reading. The Reading Teacher 65(7): 441–445.

62.

Vittrup

Snider

Rose

et al . (2016) Parental perceptions of the role of media and technology in their young children’s lives. Journal of Early Childhood Research 14(1): 43–54.