This paper will highlight the evolution of defensible space theory — from Newman's original theoretical model to some of the subsequent theoretical and empirical developments that have been made in the past 35 years. By charting these developments in our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of defensible space, the aim of this paper is to illuminate the aspects of the theory that remain ambiguous and those that have been clarified to some extent by developments in criminological research. This paper will suggest that the most ambiguous of Newman's concepts is that of `milieu'. It will be argued that this key defensible space concept draws on situational aspects of spatial layout and accessibility, land-use patterns and routine activities of place. With this in mind, this paper will attempt to re-conceptualize defensible space within the context of situational crime prevention theory by elucidating the effect that routine activities of place have on territoriality and the creation of defensible space.
Altman, I. (1975). The environment and social behavior. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
2.
Armitage, R. (2000). An evaluation of Secured By Design within West Yorkshire. Home Office Briefing Note 7/00. London: Crown Copyright.
3.
Atlas, R. (1991). The other side of defensible space. Security Management, March, 63-6.
4.
Baran, P.K., Smith, W.R. and Toker, U. (2006). Conflict between space and crime: Exploring the relationship between spatial configuration and crime location. Paper presented at Annual Conference of the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA), Atlanta, 3-7 May.
5.
Beavon, D.J.K., Brantingham, P.L. and Brantingham, P.J. (1994). The influence of street networks on the patterning of property offences. In R.V. Clarke (ed.) Crime prevention studies, vol. 2. New York: Criminal Justice Press.
6.
Booth, A. (1981). The built environment as a crime deterrent: A reexamination of defensible space. Criminology18, 557-70.
7.
Brower, S.N. (1980). Territory in urban settings. In I. Altman, A. Rapoport and J. Wohiwill (eds) Human behavior in the environment: Advances in theory and research, Vol. 4. New York: Plenum.
8.
Brown, B.B. and Altman, I. (1981). Territoriality and residential crime: A conceptual framework. In P. J. Brantingham and P. L. Brantingham (eds) Environmental criminology. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publications.
9.
Brown, B.B. and Altman, I. (1983). Territoriality, defensible space and residential burglary: An environmental analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 3, 203-220.
10.
Brown, J. (1999). An evaluation of the Secured By Design initiative in Gwent, South Wales. MSc, Scarman Centre for the Study of Public Order, University of Leicester.
11.
Brown, J. (2001). Secured By Design in Gwent. Paper presented at the Architectural Liaison Officers Conference (ACPO), Blackpool, 2-4 May.
12.
Chavis, D.M. and Wandersman, A. (1990). Sense of community in the urban environment: A catalyst for participation and community development. American Journal of Community Psychology18, 55-81.
13.
Clarke, R.V. (1992). Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. Albany, NY: Harrow and Heston.
14.
Clarke, R.V. and Eck, J. (2005). Become a problem-solving crime analyst: In 55 small steps. London: Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science, University College London.
15.
Cohen, L.E. and Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review44, 588-608.
16.
Cozens, P., Hillier, D. and Prescott, G. (2001). Crime and the design of residential property - Exploring the theoretical background. Part 1. Property Management19, 136-64.
17.
Cozens, P.M., Pascoe, T. and Hillier, D. (2004). Critically reviewing the theory and practice of Secured By Design (SBD) for residential new-build in Britain. Crime Prevention and Community Safety: An International Journal6, 13-29.
18.
Ekblom, P. (2006). Crime prevention through environmental design: Time for an upgrade?Paper presented at the International Environmental Criminology and Crime Analysis Symposium (ECCA), Chilliwack, BC, 26-29 July 2006.
19.
Feeley, M.M. (2004). Actuarial justice and the modern state. In G. Bruinsma, H. Elffers and J. de Keijser (eds) Punishment, places and perpetrators: Developments in criminology and criminal justice research. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing.
20.
Felson, M. (1987). Routine activities and crime prevention in the developing metropolis. Criminology25, 911-31.
21.
Felson, M. (1998). Crime and everyday life, Second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
22.
Hillier, B. (1973). In defence of space. RIBA Journal11, 539-44.
23.
Hillier, B. (1998). The common language of space: A way of looking at the social, economic and environmental functioning of cities on a common basis. URL (accessed 5 September 2008): http://www.spacesyntax.org/publications/commonlang.html.
24.
Hillier, B. (2004). Can streets be made safe?Urban Design International9, 31-45.
25.
Hillier, B. and Hanson, J. (1984). The social logic of space. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
26.
Hillier, B. and Shu, S. (2000). Crime and urban layout: The need for evidence . In S. Ballintyne, K. Pease and V. McLaren (eds) Secure foundations: Key issues in crime prevention, crime reduction and community safety. London: IPPR.
27.
Hunter, R.D. and Jeffry, C.R. (1997). Preventing convenience store robbery through environmental design. In R. V. Clarke (ed.) Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. New York: Harrow and Heston.
28.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The death and life of great American cities. New York: Random House.
29.
Jeffrey, C.R. (1999). CPTED: Past, present and future. Position Paper prepared for the International CPTED Association at the 4th International CPTED Association Conference, Mississauga Ontario, Canada, 20-22 September.
30.
Jones, M.A. and Fanek, M.J. (1997). Crime in the urban environment. Space syntax - First international symposium proceedings, 2, 25.
31.
McMillan, D.W. and Chavis, D.M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology14, 6-23.
32.
Mawby, R.I. (1977). Defensible space: A theoretical and empirical appraisal. Urban Studies14, 169-79.
Mayhew, P. (1979). Defensible space: The current status of a crime prevention theory. The Howard Journal18, 150-9.
35.
Merry, S.E. (1981). Defensible space undefended: Social factors in crime control through environmental design. Urban Affairs Quarterly16, 397-422.
36.
Miethe, T.D., Stafford, M.C. and Long, J.S. (1987). Social differentiation in criminal victimization: A test of routine activities/lifestyles theories. American Sociological Review52, 184-94.
37.
Newman, O. (1972). Defensible space: Crime prevention through urban design. New York: Macmillan.
38.
Newman, O. (1973). A design guide for improving residential security . National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice . Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
39.
Newman, O. (1976). Design guidelines for improving defensible space . National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice . Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
40.
Newman, O. (1996). Creating defensible space. Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.
41.
Newman, O. and Franck, K.A. (1980). Influencing crime and stability in urban housing development. National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice.
42.
Perkins, D.D., Meeks, J.W. and Taylor, R.B. (1992). The physical environment of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and disorder: Implications for theory and measurement . Journal of Environmental Psychology12, 21-34.
43.
Popkin, S.J., Olson, L.M., Lurigio, A.J., Gwiasda, V.E. and Carter, R.G. (1995). Sweeping out drugs and crime: Residents' views of the Chicago Housing Authority's public housing drug elimination program . Crime and Delinquency41, 73-99.
44.
Ratcliffe, J.H. (2003). Suburb boundaries and residential burglars. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, Australian Institute of Criminology246, 1-6.
45.
Roncek, D.W. (1981). Dangerous places: Crime and residential environment . Social Forces60, 74-96.
46.
Roncek, D.W. and Maier, P.A. (1991). Bars, blocks and crimes revisited: Linking the theory of routine activities to the empiricism of `hotspots'. Criminology29, 725-53.
47.
Schweitzer, J.H., Woo Kim, J. and Mackin, J.R. (1999). The impact of the built environment on crime and fear of crime in urban neighborhoods. Journal of Urban Technology6, 59-73.
48.
Sherman, L.W., Gartin, P.R. and Buerger, M.E. (1989). Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology27, 27-55.
49.
Shu, S. (2000). Housing layout and crime vulnerability. Urban Design International5, 177-88.
50.
Shu, S. and Huang, J. (2003). Spatial configuration and vulnerability of residential burglary: A case study of a city in Taiwan. Proceedings of the 4th International Space Syntax Symposium, London .
51.
Stark, R. (1987). Deviant places: A theory of the ecology of crime . Criminology25, 893-909.
52.
Taylor, R.B. and Harrell, A.V. (1996). Physical environment and crime. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice.
53.
Taylor, R.B., Gottfredson, S.D. and Brower, S. (1980). The defensibility of defensible space: A critical review. In T. Hirschi and M. Gottfredson (eds) Understanding crime. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publications.
54.
Taylor, R.B., Gottfredson, S.D. and Brower, S.N. (1981). Informal control in the urban residential environment (final report). Washington, DC: Community Crime Prevention Division, National Institute of Justice, US Department of Justice.
55.
Taylor, R.B., Gottfredson, S.D. and Brower, S. (1984). Block crime and fear: Defensible space, local social ties, and territorial functioning. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency21, 303-31.
56.
Wikström P-O. and Dolmen L. (1990). Crime and Crime Trends in Different Urban Environments . Journal of Quantitative Criminology6, 7-29.
57.
Wilson, J.Q. and Kelling, G. (1982). Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety . Atlantic Monthly249, 29-38.
58.
Wittebrood, K. and Nieuwbeerta, P. (2000). Criminal victimization during one's life course: The effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency37, 91-122.
