Abstract
What should grandparents be expected to learn in longevity societies experiencing rapid social transformation? Grounded theory was initially applied to identify assumptions, goals and curriculum. The Grandparent Strengths and Needs Inventory was developed to record the observations of grandparent attitudes and behaviours as seen by grandparents, parents and grandchildren. This research report describes (a) an educational intervention programme that confirmed grandparents are able to improve relationships with family members, (b) protocols for application by support groups of grandparents raising their grandchildren, (c) a model for education of assisted living residents with reliance on indigenous leadership, and (d) methods to determine strengths and learning needs grandparents in particular cultures have in common. Grandparent courses have been offered in public schools, universities, libraries, senior centres, and religious institutions and emphasize (a) conversation agenda for grandparents to explore with individual grandchildren and their parents, (b) awareness of the challenges parents encounter and ways to help them attain their goals, and (c) learning about grandchild experiences from infancy through early adulthood.
Keywords
Archaeological records indicate that the average lifespan for ancient mankind was about 20 years, long enough to ensure survival of the species. Few men or women reached the age of 50. In contrast, people living in wealthy nations now can expect to become 85 and, perhaps 100 years old if born in the present millennium (Buettner, 2017). This extension of the lifespan has introduced a new stage of human development with unfamiliar challenges for policy makers, health care providers, employers, educators, religious institutions, families, and individuals.
This report summarizes research studies of grandparent instruction and evaluation of learning. The considerations include (a) origins of grandparent education based on grounded theory; (b) a measurement strategy to detect strengths and learning needs of grandparents as seen by grandchildren, parents, and grandparents; (c) an indigenous approach to provide classes for assisted living residents; and (d) ways to identify curriculum needs for grandparents of different ethnicities.
Longevity societies
According to the Central Intelligence Agency (2017), there are 224 nations in the world; 43 nations, including the United States and the United Kingdom, report an average lifespan of 80 years or older. These are the longevity societies, commonly characterized by higher incomes, better access to health care and nutritious diet, more lengthy education, and a strong commitment to ensuring quality of life for all citizens.
Motivating continuation of the maturity process is a goal of the International Longevity Centre Global Alliance (2018). These independently funded research centres in 17 countries conduct studies to support productivity of older adults and encourage awareness of their sustained responsibilities to the family, community, and society. The first International Longevity Centre was established in the United States in 1990 by physician Robert N. Butler. He was a visionary leader who also served as the founding director of the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health in 1975, and in 1982 began the first Department of Geriatrics in a United States medical school at The Mount Sinai Medical Centre of Columbia University in New York City. Forecasts showing that the population of retirees would double in a decade led Butler (2008) to recognize it was time to redefine retirement, to ensure that a responsible lifestyle would become the new norm. He recommended that adult educators redefine the retirement experience to include helping others and challenge a self-absorbed existence that would alienate younger people. Butler (2008) posed these questions: How might older persons be awakened and become engaged responsibly in the present, building a worthy epitaph to the future? How might they be mobilized to found a movement dedicated to various forms of social engagement? This is the true challenge. (p. 398)
Education for maturity
During early adulthood (ages 20–40) and middle age (40–60 years old), employment has a strong influence on self-esteem. An assumption is that, during retirement, the freedom to spend time the way one pleases will replace the job as a means to sustain favourable self-esteem. However, surveys of older adults have consistently determined that a typical 15–20 years of retirement are sometimes accompanied by a loss of purpose that must be restored to maintain the self-impression that life continues to matter because it has significance for others (Blackburn & Epel, 2017). The combination of increased life expectancy and a longer retirement urges educators to discover creative education opportunities that allow older adults to continue development of maturity. Education for maturity should be considered a process that is lifelong, different from acquiring formal learning of shorter duration focused on career preparation or upgrading skills to improve productivity at work.
A key element to implement education for maturity is known as productive ageing. This concept unites the efforts of professionals from numerous fields and recognizes that most older adults (a) continue to be physically and mentally capable of contributing to society, (b) the period between retirement and frailty is being extended, and (c) most people want to stay active so life continues to provide purpose and satisfaction. Estimates are that 83% of Americans age 65 and older are grandparents or great grandparents. Americans initially become grandparents between ages 48 and 51 so there is considerable time to provide care, affection, and guidance to grandchildren from infancy to early adulthood (Krogstad, 2015).
Gaining support for family-related education in later life is complicated because until recently grandparents did not have a reason to view learning from younger relatives as necessary. But, unless grandparents recognize younger loved ones as necessary sources of wisdom, they will not understand the unique experiences of parents and grandchildren. In turn, loved ones will not consider them valued advisors. Grandparents should be informed about what growing up is like now, the ways childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood have changed since they raised daughters and sons. In addition, it is important to understand the corresponding shifts that have emerged to alter how parents carry out their guidance role with consequent implications for what grandparents should expect of themselves.
Grandparent intervention and assessment
Grounded theory to identify learning needs
In 1980 the Parent Child Centre at Arizona State University was invited by directors of senior centres to a meeting where grandparents would express feelings about their role in the modern family (Strom & Strom, 1983). An observation repeatedly stated was that many families were seen as becoming fragile and in need of greater support. Grandparents wanted to be part of a solution but recognized they needed education to accommodate changing times. A request was made for the university to provide instruction. The university spokesman, co-author of this article, explained our mission at that time was to collaborate with the Rockefeller Foundation and the General Mills Foundation on a project to help parents of young children become effective teachers. We admitted our lack of expertise about grandparents but agreed to search the family relationships and intergenerational literature and report about model programmes for consideration. The surprise was that descriptions about grandparents in the literature were mostly patronizing, characterizing them as wise but not identifying learning needs or education programmes to support them in their changing family role.
During a follow-up meeting with the grandparents, we reported results from the literature search and proposed an initiative with potential mutual benefit. The university would provide a free class for grandparents about current issues in parenting, child, and adolescent development. This course would be offered at senior centres and religious institutions in Phoenix, Scottsdale, and Sun City, Arizona. A second goal was for the faculty to become familiar with grandparent experiences. To achieve this goal participants agreed that, as part of their weekly sessions, they would respond to structured questions we would provide about being a grandparent. Gerontology students from Arizona State University recorded grandparent discussions in small groups. This baseline information was needed because the family relationships and intergenerational literature had not provided insight about what grandparents should learn. Data were gathered from 400 grandparents attending classes over a period of two years (Strom & Strom, 1990). This approach to defining a new area of study where literature is meagre reflects grounded theory. Using grounded theory, substantial information is obtained in a systematic way before assumptions are made, goals are set, and assessment methods are devised (Glaser & Strauss, 2000; Holton & Walsh, 2016).
Grandparent development assumptions
The original and continuing assumptions about grandparent development by Strom and Strom (1997) include the following:
Grandparent responsibilities need to be more clearly defined. Mothers and fathers can attend parenting courses that help them maintain competence in their ever-changing role but there are no corresponding opportunities for grandparents. Instead, they are left alone to wonder: What are my rights and responsibilities? How can I be a favourable influence on my grandchildren as they get older? How well am I doing as a grandparent? These questions can be expected to persist until some common guidelines are established for setting goals and guiding self-evaluation. Many grandparents have difficulty trying to define their role and understand how they can be a valued resource. Consequently, for an increasing number of families, the responsibility for bringing up children has become disproportionate with the grandparents assuming fewer obligations than is in everyone’s best interest. Grandparents need to learn how to improve their influence. Parents who can count on grandparents to help share the load of child care and instruction less often seek support from outside the family. Grandparent success requires awareness about the parenting goals of daughters and sons, and acting as a partner in trying to reinforce these goals. However, even though research has shown that people remain capable of adopting new attitudes and skills during middle and later life, grandparent development is not considered a priority for adult education. This missing element of support lessens the possibility of a meaningful life for grandparents. A practical grandparent programme needs to be widely available. Older adults have been led to believe their learning should focus on whatever topics or activities they find interesting without any regard for societal expectations as we insist upon for younger learners. However, as people age, they should also continue to grow, and not just in terms of leisure-oriented skills. Some of education in later life should focus on responsibilities and roles, just as the curriculum does for students who are younger. Senior citizens are the only age group whose needs for learning have not been well defined so a suitable curriculum for them is lacking. Because demographic forecasts indicate that this segment of the population will grow more rapidly than any other, programmes should be available to help them contribute to their family. Society should be oriented to recognize that learning remains important after people finish the employment phase of their lives. This contradicts the belief that, whatever grandparents need to know, will be revealed by wisdom that comes naturally with ageing. Such an assumption permits communities to ignore the education needs of older adults and causes many elders to underestimate their need for further schooling. Educational psychologists should support the concept of lifelong learning by discovering methods of instruction and procedures to evaluate learning that promotes grandparent development. Society needs to set higher expectations for grandparents. By themselves grandparents may be unable to generate the motivation that is needed to stimulate educational commitment in their peer group. This task is difficult because so many people think of retirement as a time when they should withdraw from community responsibility. Peers reinforce the view that being carefree and without obligation is an acceptable goal for the final stage of life. The problem is compounded by age segregation. When older adults are limited to their peers for conversation, they may adopt certain behaviours that are not in accord with what the society as a whole believes is best. In order to favourably revise existing norms for grandparents to include greater learning and more substantial contributions, younger people should raise their expectations of older relatives and make them known. The talent and potential of grandparents could enrich the lives of everyone. Society should expect them to demonstrate a commitment to personal growth, spend time with loved ones, show community concern through volunteerism, and support the schools to ensure a better future for children. When educational expectations are established for older adults, they are bound to have greater influence and feel more self-worth. The benefits of grandparent education need to be assessed. Public support can be anticipated for education programmes that help grandparents enlarge the scope of their influence, improve their ability to communicate with relatives, become more self-confident, and experience greater respect in the family. It is promising when men and women attending grandparent classes report they have achieved some of these goals. But self-reports of success are more credible when others can corroborate them. Sons, daughters, and grandchildren could confirm whether the attitudes and behaviours of grandparents improve as a result of attending educational programmes. The instruction and curriculum that support these goals and guide educators in programme development should take into account group and individual differences.
Goals for grandparent education
Grandparent development theory by Strom and Strom (1997) emphasizes six goals. Achieving these goals can contribute to constructive family influence and improve personal maturity.
Increase the satisfactions of being a grandparent. At the time when people first become grandparents, they can typically expect to live for another 20 or more years. This unprecedented longevity makes it possible to have a greater impact on grandchildren, to offer continuity of affection, care, and guidance from infancy until early adulthood. However, harmonious family relationships are not guaranteed; they depend on the sustained effort of both parties to grow and adjust to changes in one another. When a grandparent or grandchild becomes too distant or dissatisfied with one another, the opportunity for benefit is lost and the relationship stands in jeopardy. Therefore, the potential satisfactions of relating to grandchildren at each age should be emphasized to provide grandparents a consistently positive view of their role. Grandparents who enjoy their interaction as grandchildren grow older are more able to cope with difficulties and remain a source of personal counselling. Improve how well grandparents perform their role. The extent to which grandparents are involved in family affairs can depend on knowing when help is needed and being aware of what one can do well. Unless grandparents feel capable of providing a nurturing and stimulating environment, they may withdraw from their obligations and expect the grandchildren’s parents to assume full responsibility for care and guidance. Because children mostly admire those adults who help them grow, adapt, and feel capable, grandparents should arrange to spend time with them. The criteria by which grandparents judge themselves should change as grandchildren grow older. Being the successful grandparent of a student in high school requires a different set of competencies than when the child was a second grader. Helping the grandparents establish reasonable criteria for self-evaluation at each stage of their grandchild’s development can result in more accurate and beneficial assessment. Enlarge the scope of guidance expected of grandparents. When the expectations of grandparents are defined cooperatively with daughters, sons, and grandchildren, the usual outcome is a mutually understood and responsible role. The parenting goals of daughters and sons are the most important factors to rely on in guiding grandparent behaviour. Grandparents should be familiar with these goals so they can understand the lessons that parents want reinforced. This vital information is not revealed by intuition; it does not come naturally. What tends to come naturally is enthusiasm for a relationship with grandchildren that focuses on entertainment, without much attention to helping the parents as a teaching partner. By learning what they should teach, grandparents can avoid being a dysfunctional influence. It should be understood by everyone that the grandparent role is first and foremost a supportive one. Enable grandparents to understand their common difficulties. No one should expect to participate in raising children without experiencing some difficulties. But, every grandparent should have access to knowledge that can help him or her cope with current problems in supporting the growth of grandchildren. One way to begin is by identifying the difficulties that grandparents are most likely to experience at successive ages of a grandchild. When grandparents become aware that obstacles they experience are typical, they are less defensive. In turn, this attitude disposes them to more readily consider solutions that require changes in their own behaviour. Provide support for grandparents in coping with frustrations. Grandparents can expect to endure occasional frustration. But frequency of disappointment in themselves and grandchildren can lessen by understanding why particular behaviour patterns occur at various child ages and reasons for allowing some of them to continue. Grandparents are able to eliminate certain of their frustrations by modifying expectations of grandchildren. Certainly, it is appropriate to recognize and correct grandchild misbehaviour when it occurs. However, when grandparents’ expectations are consistent with the developmental needs of children, the tendency is to encourage normative conduct and self-esteem. Help grandparents to have their information needs met. Grandparents should be aware of the abilities, feelings, values, choices, and problems of their grandchildren. Understanding is minimized when biased and partial reporting by mothers and fathers prevent grandparents from knowing what is going on in the family. Misinformation denies older relatives the chance to provide support when it is needed. Parent reports that leave out the problems grandchildren encounter can cause grandparents to underestimate the struggles of growing up today. Much of the knowledge grandparents should acquire has to come directly from conversations with their grandchildren. Boys and girls are the best source of information on their individual experiences.
Assessment of grandparent performance
Many research studies had concluded that older adults are capable of learning (Cabeza, Nyberg, & Park, 2017). However, the literature about ageing did not discuss what grandparents should learn in societies that are experiencing rapid social transformation. Similarly, information was lacking about what younger relatives believe grandparents should learn so they understand experiences of parents and grandchildren and become more responsive to their needs. Parents and grandchildren are the most relevant sources of observation to offer grandparents feedback about their strengths, limitations, and learning needs. An education strategy that included input from younger relatives was missing in adult education. Grandparents recognize some of their personal assets and shortcomings but gaps in knowledge are bound to occur when they alone decide the content of what they will learn.
A decision was made to develop an instrument that would invite multiple generations to report their observations about grandparent attitudes and behaviours at different points in time. The purpose of the Grandparent Strengths and Needs Inventory (GSNI) is to help grandparents become aware of their favourable qualities and aspects of family relationships that require further knowledge (Strom & Strom, 1993). Grandparent effectiveness is measured by 60 Likert-type items with optional responses of always, often, seldom, and never. The GSNI is divided equally into these six subscales, each providing data about separate aspects of grandparent development.
Satisfaction – experiences of being a grandparent that are pleasing, Success – ways that grandparents successfully perform their role, Teaching – kinds of lessons grandparents are expected to provide, Difficulty – problems encountered with grandparent obligations, Frustration – grandchild behaviours that upset the grandparents, and Information Needs – essential knowledge about each grandchild.
Three subscales (Satisfaction, Success, and Teaching) combine to yield a grandparent Potentials Index. The other three subscales (Difficulties, Frustration, and Information Needs) produce a grandparent Concerns Index. Reliability, validity, and factor structure studies confirmed acceptable psychometrics of the instrument (Collinsworth, Strom, Strom, & Young, 1991; Strom, Buki, & Strom, 1997).
The inventory includes three versions. All versions have identical content but the items are stated differently to reflect observations reported by separate generations. Respondents for the grandparent version report self-impressions. In the other versions, parents and grandchildren describe their observations about a particular grandparent. The rationale is that viewing family relationships from several perspectives can produce a more accurate portrayal of grandparents, make known the behaviours they should be encouraged to continue, identify actions that warrant reconsideration, and habits that should be left behind.
Some GSNI users want to learn about only the self-impressions of grandparents. Another group is primarily concerned with how parents view performance of grandparents. Still others want to explore observations of grandchildren. There are additional investigations where two versions are needed to compare perspectives of grandparents and grandchildren, parents and grandparents, or parents and grandchildren. Finally, some studies call for contrasting views of grandparents, parents, and grandchildren so all three versions are administered. Each version is preceded by an identification form to gather respondent information about age, gender, and ethnicity, geographical distance between the grandparent and grandchild, and amount of time spent together. These independent variables are used to recognize characteristics of groups.
Effects of intervention
After development of the GSNI, the next step was to find out whether a tentative curriculum could help grandparents in relationships with school-age grandchildren and their parents. The American Association of Retired Persons, the largest advocacy group for older adults with 38 million members in the United States, supported this three-generational experimental study. Participants were recruited at Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish religious institutions reflecting their national proportion of the population age 50 and older. A listing of all places of worship in the Phoenix, Arizona, metropolitan area, stratified by religion, was assembled with assistance from the Ecumenical Council and Catholic Family Services. In randomly paired drawings within religions, the first institution became an experimental site and the second a control site. Selection continued until sampling targets were reached. This method avoided contamination of either group that might otherwise have occurred by grandparent interaction if experimental and control subjects were drawn from the same sites (Strom & Strom, 1990).
The senior clergy from eight experimental sites were invited to host a free community service course called Becoming a Better Grandparent. Senior clergy at eight other institutions were invited to be control sites. A total sample of 395 culturally diverse grandparents were 50–80 years old. Most were retired but some were still employed. The 210 experimental subjects were provided 90-minute class sessions over 12 weeks. Each of the experimental participants identified a school-age grandchild and one of that grandchild’s parents to give a confidential assessment about attitudes and behaviours shown by that particular grandparent. Grandparents, parents, and grandchildren completed the GSNI before and after the intervention and three months later. A matching control group composed of 185 grandparents were denied instruction but given a cash award to complete the same schedule of assessments as the experimental group. The control group made no improvements.
When the intervention was over, experimental grandparents reported making significant improvements on several subscales and potentials and concerns indexes of the GSNI. These gains were corroborated by parents and grandchildren and sustained three months following a post-test. Table 1 shows changes in performance of grandparents as perceived by the grandparents (n = 210), parents (n = 185), and grandchildren (n = 180) in the experimental group (Strom & Strom, 1990).
Perceptions of three generations of grandparents’ performance: subscales and indices changes from pre-test to post-test.
Source: Adapted from Strom and Strom (1993, p. 20). Copyright © 1993 by R. Strom and S. Strom.
Grandparents and cultural diversity
Generation as a factor in defining culture
There was a time when the identity of youth was shaped primarily by their nationality, gender, ethnicity, religion, and socio-economic status. Since then a digital communications and social media revolution has exposed youth across the globe to similar experiences in real time. As a result, adolescents from Hong Kong, Los Angeles, and Paris share more ideas and values with peers than with older relatives. The youngest generation appears to be a separate culture. Grandparent studies have revealed greater differences between generations than between ethnic groups (Strom & Strom, 2013). Because generation is so powerful a factor in defining identity, youth look mostly to one another for conversation, assurance, advice, and direction. Recognizing the positive potential of peer influence should motivate adults to find ways for learning more about the views and vision of young people (Harris, 2009; Strom & Strom, 2016; Turkle, 2016).
Knowing the history and traditions of a culture can support social identity but does not ensure the collective self-criticism groups need to motivate and guide the revision of behaviour. The assumption of homogeneity is that all members of a subculture possess similar views. This impression ignores how rapid change has produced vast differences in successive generations. In a technological environment, the way to show respect for differences in generational views is to assess the opinions of successive cohorts. This approach contradicts the traditional belief that a recognized spokesperson for an ethnicity, typically someone of middle age or older, knows and can accurately describe the full range of generational views within their population. When generation is taken into account in defining modern cultures undergoing transformation, adults become less inclined to speak on behalf of youth in favour of encouraging them to state their own views (Strom & Strom, 2013, 2016).
Hierarchical cultures still exist where adolescents are discouraged from stating personal opinions that differ from older relatives. Teenagers in such environments who choose to express divergent ideas are often unfairly identified as lacking respect for their elders. Because of such constraints to authentic dialogue, some youth choose to remain silent. In turn, this reaction can cause adults to mistakenly believe that absence of opposition means there is agreement across generations. A more promising alternative emerges when adults recognize that intergenerational dialogue is essential to identify group expectations that should modify and collective decision-making is chosen as the method to negotiate changes in family roles (Strom & Strom, 2011a).
Cultures will still thrive in the future by maintaining a healthy balance of group identity, greater objectivity, and collective self-criticism. The inclination to refer to cultural differences without taking generation differences into account ignores the basis for internal criticism that is necessary to balance aspects of cultural preservation and cultural evolution. Development of a grandparent curriculum for specific cultural groups requires knowing views of three generations. In this way, themes that differentiate ethnicities can be considered in intervention programmes.
Generational views of American ethnic groups
Numerous studies have found greater differences in generational observations of grandparent performance within ethnicities than observations between ethnicities (Strom & Strom, 1997, 2017). To illustrate, Table 2 shows generational differences for GSNI scales, potentials, and concerns within ethnicities for African-Americans (n = 777), Caucasian-Americans (n = 1,086), and Hispanic Americans (n = 672). This total sample (N = 2535) included non-consanguineous grandparents (n = 1117), parents (n = 624), and grandchildren (n = 794). For each ethnic group the goals were to assess the performance of grandparents, identify obstacles to success, and propose relevant curriculum themes.
Differences by subscale between generations of African-Americans, Caucasian-Americans, and Hispanic-Americans perceptions of grandparent performance.
Source: Adapted from Strom and Strom (1997, pp. 270–271). Copyright © 1997 by R. Strom and S. Strom.
ns: non-significant.
*p < .05 = X.
Statistical analyses were performed using generation with three levels (grandparents, parents, grandchildren) and ethnicities with three levels (African-American, Caucasian-American, Hispanic-American) to allow for intergenerational comparisons within and between groups. The dependent variables were scores on 60 items of the instrument and scores for subscales. Analysis of variance procedures between generations and between ethnicities were conducted on the overall instrument, Potential and Concern Indices, each subscale, and every item. Post hoc paired comparisons detected the significant differences between any two generations (grandparents compared to parents, grandparents compared to grandchildren, and parents compared to grandchildren). The same procedures were applied for each of 60 items to more specifically identify differences.
Significant interaction of a generation with any demographic variables like grandparent age; grandparent gender; grandparent income; grandparent formal education; distance from the grandchild; amount of time spent with a grandchild; grandchild gender; age of grandchild; and parent gender, age, and education were determined by multiple analyses of variance for every ethnicity. Descriptive statistics including mean scores and standard deviations were obtained for dependent and independent variables. Specific outcomes for subscales and suggested themes differentiating African-Americans, Caucasian-Americans, and Hispanic-Americans have been described (Strom & Strom, 1997).
The demographic variable that has predicted grandparent success most consistently is time spent together. Those spending more time interacting or doing things with grandchildren (less than or greater than 5 hours a month) are identified as most successful in the observations of grandchildren, parents, and grandparents. Greater time in contact matters more than has been recognized by researchers who usually focus on independent variables that cannot be modified such as level of education or income. Grandparents cannot change their level of formal education or amount of income but can choose to benefit from the advantage that comes from spending more time with younger relatives they love.
The uniqueness of grandparent ethnic background is respected by applying the three-generational strategy to detect learning needs and recommend curriculum topics. Towards this goal we have collaborated with colleagues on studies involving over 5000 grandparents, parents, and grandchildren in Japan and the Republic of China (Strom & Strom, 2013; Strom et al., 1995, 1999). Additional studies have explored perceptions of grandparents in Sweden, England, and immigrant grandparents to Canada from Vietnam and Central and South America (Strom, 1986, 1988; Strom, Johnson, Strom, & Daniels, 1992; Strom & Strom, 1983, 1987, 1988). A consistent conclusion has been that grandparents share a desire to contribute to the well-being of younger relatives and recognize that education is needed as a key to their success.
Grandparents raising their grandchildren
Surrogates are essential for assistance in every society. These are the people who step up and assume responsibility of others unable or unwilling to fulfil their guidance role for children. In every era grandparents have raised grandchildren when family tragedies occur such as parent death, divorce, or abandonment. Full-time care is also motivated by helping unmarried adolescent mothers, parents losing employment, or requiring free child care. Some parents become addicted to illegal drugs or opioids, suffer from AIDS, abuse a daughter or son, are laid off from a job, deployed by the military, sent to jail, or struggle with mental illness. In addition, there are many families where one parent is present but unable to provide all the care that is needed by children (Dolbin-MacNab & Yancura, 2018).
The first time the American government tried to assess the scale of surrogate child care was in the national census of 2000. Congress directed this action to find out how many grandparents act as parents and learn whether they saw their role to be a temporary or permanent condition. More recently, the Pew Foundation reported that seven million grandparents live with grandchildren. In nearly half these families the grandparents have the primary responsibility for child care. Two-thirds are grandmothers without the presences of a grandfather. Over 70% are middle aged, less than 60 years old. Most grandmothers believe their responsibility for child care and education will be permanent (Wiltz, 2016). People of all backgrounds face such unexpected responsibilities but the incidence is higher among minority families. Regardless of why their younger relatives live with them, grandparents raising grandchildren share a common resolve to provide a stable and supportive environment. Methods to guide this segment of the grandparent population and improve effectiveness of their support groups have been explored (Strom & Strom, 2011b).
Education for assisted living residents
In addition to identifying curriculum for particular grandparent ethnicities in the United States and abroad, instructional innovation has been implemented for assisted living residents. Nine million older women and men in the United States receive some form of care; the size of this population is forecast to double by 2030. Cognitive and social needs have been identified as an aspect of institutional care that should receive greater attention. These needs should be given higher priority to improve the quality of life for residents (Harris-Kojetin et al., 2016).
The School of Public Health at the University of Minnesota analysed 13,000 interviews with institutionalized older adults about the quality of life. This study measured six quality of life domains including the physical environment, personal attention, personal engagement, food enjoyment, negative mood, and positive mood. Average amount of time that staff spent with individual residents was 20 minutes a day. Yet, despite this brevity of time together, across all domains, the number of activity staff hours was positively associated with patient quality of life. Researchers concluded that quality of life for residents could be improved by supplementing nursing care with educational programmes to increase social connections and mental stimulation (Shippee, Kane, Henning-Smith, & Lewis, 2015). A generation earlier, DePoy and Archer (1992) made a similar recommendation about replacing the medical model that dominates provision of long-term care with a model that gives greater consideration for the social, emotional, and mental needs of older adults.
The director of a large assisted living facility invited the Office of Parent Development International of Arizona State University to tour the campus, meet with resident representatives, and discuss possible collaboration on a grandparent education programme. This facility served by a staff of 300 was the home of 800 residents with an average age of 81. Residents were mainly females (70%) and widowed (62%). Three groups lived on campus: (a) most lived independently in their own apartment but were required to eat one meal per day in the common dining room to ensure that dietary needs were met, (b) individuals recuperating in the medical unit received care from a staff of nurses and physicians, and (c) one-third of residents lived in a separate facility where they received complete care and supervision because of dementia (Strom & Strom, 2016).
Facility representatives had conducted their own survey showing that 80% of residents were grandparents, great grandparents, or friends of younger relatives and would welcome a course to understand the changes occurring in family relationships. After a tour of the campus a decision was made to work together on the condition that enough insider volunteers could be recruited and trained as class leaders. Grandparent programme goals were to increase the amount of mental stimulation, improve family relationships, and better understand younger relatives. The goals for the team from the university were to discover ways to support leadership for their education programme, identify methods for teaching students in this advanced age group, explore new procedures to evaluate the outcomes of learning, and provide a no-cost programme model that could be adopted by other assisted living facilities (Strom & Strom, 2016).
Training insiders as volunteer leaders
The Grandparents and their Families course offered to assisted living residents identified goals of parents, emphasized what growing up is like from the view of children and adolescents, and recognized how changes younger relatives face called for corresponding shifts in what should be expected of grandparents. The decision was made to have one lesson a week for small classes composed of 4–6 grandparents that would be led by peers trained to be class leaders. After the general orientation meeting, a letter was sent to all independent living residents inviting them to consider becoming a class leader. Twenty women and men, 77–91 years old, volunteered to participate in leadership training.
Most volunteer leaders had previous careers as teachers, social workers, nurses, or worked in business. Some expressed concern that situations might arise like having to see the doctor or visiting family that would interfere with meeting classes for which they were responsible. Accordingly, the group decided that, by working in pairs, anxiety could be reduced because both leaders would share preparation for each lesson. Then, in the event that a leader could not attend a session, the partner would take over and class would be held as usual. A method used was for the university team to preview each lesson with the trainers a week ahead of time. In this way, they could practice using materials, raise questions related to lessons, and discuss troublesome issues that may have arisen in a lesson the previous week (Strom & Strom, 2016).
Complexity of class scheduling
Developing a schedule of classes to meet at convenient times presented a considerable challenge. Some of the residents were early risers and wanted classes soon after breakfast. But morning classes did not appeal to slow starters who said they needed more time to wake up and get going. Others preferred afternoon sessions because this is when they did their best thinking. Preserving a daily nap time and effects of medication were also considerations for some people. Religious services and other regular activities such as the scheduled laundry time had to be taken into account. After potential participants indicated on a survey their first, second, and third preferences, a master schedule was prepared for discussion and leader assignments.
If a participant missed a class, s/he would check the master schedule and make up the same lesson by meeting with another group. Jane’s blood pressure sometimes interfered with plans. Usually she attended a grandparent class from 9:00 to 10:30 on Wednesday mornings. However, when she could not go to her regular group, she looked at the schedule for optional times. Having many scheduling choices was universally appealing since it allowed participants to maintain continuity of lessons. The dedication and commitment of resident leaders to guide their peer group teams enabled the comprehensive schedule.
Cooperative learning and social networks
Some lifestyle and environment factors like smoking, obesity, substance abuse, access to health care, sedentary activity, and air pollution have long been recognized as mortality risk factors. However, until recently, social factors that have similar or even greater influence on mortality risk received little attention. Having a network of friends who remain in touch can favourably affect emotional status, psychological well-being, physical health, and longevity (Marmot, 2015). Outsiders may suppose an assisted living facility would allow for continuous conversations because no one goes to work and peers are ever present. But, physical proximity does not guarantee motivation to build social networks or skills needed for group conversation.
When older adults were growing up, learning from peers was not considered important. Reading and listening to the teacher was the main way to learn. Times have changed. Students are no longer expected to just sit still, listen carefully, and write responses to a teacher. Instead, the most popular instructional method known as cooperative learning is widespread in middle school through higher education. This orientation to learning with peers did not emerge until years after grandparents finished formal education and the Internet became the most common source for information (Strom, Strom, Fournet, & Strom, 1997).
Class leaders introduced the following cooperative learning principles and encouraged teammates to practice them during each grandparent session and apply to family interaction.
Recognize the importance of self-disclosure. Realize the need to stay focused on a topic. Listen carefully to the comments of peers. Consider unfamiliar ideas and opinions. Allow time for everyone to share views. Avoid trying to dominate a conversation. Defend and describe personal opinions. Ask for clarification of concepts or views. Challenge peer sources of information. Take time to reflect on problem solutions.
Each participant received a free guidebook containing the lessons and activities that they read before coming to class (Strom & Strom, 1991, 1992). The lesson topics included giving and seeking advice, understanding parenting changes in raising children and adolescents, goals and expectations of modern parents, recognizing success of parents in raising children, sharing fears and worries, managing conflicts, and coping with stress. Lessons on grandchildren considered goal setting, values and morals, reliance on peers, and influence of media and technology.
The 90-minute weekly classes were held in lounges at the end of each floor of three high-rise buildings. These lounges provided an ideal environment including comfortable chairs and round tables so that participants could look directly at teammates while speaking and listening. There were no air conditioning noises, visual distractions, and two bathrooms were nearby. The sound conditions were excellent, a major factor because half of people 75 years or older have debilitating hearing loss (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2017). The classes, with an average weekly attendance of 65 residents, met for one year. Having insider volunteers serve as class leaders was recognized as absolutely essential to provide education that is needed by this institutionalized group of grandparents.
Benefits of reciprocal learning between generations
People of the same age share a unique location in time because of exposure to the same world events, pop culture trends, and norms that prevail when they grew up. The accelerating pace of social evolution makes it imperative to become familiar with how other age groups see situations, respect the principles that guide their behaviour, recognize their vision of the future, and become willing to consider them as essential sources of learning. These conditions define reciprocal learning, mutual growth that is based on consideration of feelings, ideas, values, and perspectives of a different generation.
How can reciprocal learning become a new social pattern that allows more people to concern themselves with the well-being of those outside their age cohort? What lessons can become a focus for learning from those older and younger than ourselves? No one knows all the answers for these questions but it is clear that they should become a more common focus for research to avoid alienation and promote mental health in the context of an age-separated culture. The amount of communication among different age groups is meagre and projections suggest this pattern is bound to worsen unless creative initiatives are implemented (Turkle, 2016).
Consider some possibilities. Knowing about healthy ageing and sustaining the quest for maturity in later life seems a practical topic to study during secondary school because forecasts indicate that adolescents will have an unprecedented lifespan. This learning about the future necessitates intergenerational conversations that should be supported by teachers who assign homework implicating grandparents. Parents also need to find out from grandparents the aspects of their family role they value, cherished experiences that are vanishing, confusion in redefining a shifting family role, and goals that require feedback from relatives. Grandparents must learn about the dissimilar experiences of younger relatives at school, peer friendships, goals, joys, values, disappointments, and failures. This awareness requires interaction, willingness to listen carefully, and learning to communicate by mobile devices. To fulfil their partner role, grandparents should know about and reinforce parenting goals and support personal aspirations parents seek to achieve. Intergenerational education can establish a common understanding that social harmony depends on communication across generations. Bonds between grandparents, parents, and grandchildren can become stronger when their relationships are defined by reciprocal learning and mutual respect.
Current advances in grandparent education
Three-generational studies have revealed the unique strengths and learning needs of grandparents in specific cultures that can be used to build suitable curriculum, offer intervention, and track progress. Research has also identified common learning needs of grandparents independent of their ethnicity, economic status, or religious background. Forty-two lessons include (a) shared concerns of grandparents from all backgrounds, (b) challenges parents encounter and ways to support them in achieving their family goals, and (c) opportunities and difficulties grandchildren experience at home and in school from infancy through early adulthood. The curriculum intended for all grandparents and other interested older adults is being field tested in the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute at Auburn University in Alabama. Each lesson is accompanied by activities that can increase understanding and motivation through structured agenda for intergenerational conversations.
Conclusion
Adult education is available in most communities. Women and men benefit from these classes even though it is uncommon that courses focus on family relationships, the topic with the highest priority for grandparents. Curriculum input from younger generations is needed so that older adults can become connected, informed, and able to adapt to new expectations. The self-determined focus of adult education should remain as elective studies but be joined by access to a common course about understanding conditions parents encounter and things grandparents should do to be better partners. Knowing goals parents have for their children and reinforcing these goals should become a basic guide for grandparent behaviour and used by them as relevant criteria for self-evaluation.
Longevity societies should devise a comprehensive vision of education so all age groups experience social transformation together. The common way to arrange education for children, adolescents, and young adults is to formulate a curriculum emphasizing the skills needed for employment. Initially priorities are established, expectations to focus the common learning are made known, instruction is provided, and evaluation is administered to determine progress and achievement for individuals and groups. In societies undergoing transition, grandparents could benefit from education based on national goals and priorities to sustain their important place in families, convey expectations for what they should be taught, offer convenient classes for them, and evaluate progress.
Providing free or low-cost grandparent education requires training volunteers to assume leadership for scheduling and guiding classes at senior centres, religious institutions, community libraries, public schools, universities, and assisted living centres. This indigenous leadership serves grandparents in two ways. First, curriculum is available for all participants including those unable to afford costs commonly associated with the administration of adult education. Second, leaders arrange and schedule classes that meet at locations that are convenient for everyone.
Throughout history people have confirmed that growing older results in wisdom. However, in the current age-segregated environment, family relationships require additional wisdom that is based on reciprocal learning between younger and older relatives. Unless this non-traditional source of wisdom is recognized by grandparents, they will be unable to understand the unique experiences of parents and grandchildren or be seen by them as valued advisors. Grandparent education can also become a source of wisdom by providing insight about ways to support the goals and well-being of parents and grandchildren while gaining a mature perspective needed in a longevity society.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research received financial support from the American Association for Retired Persons; McKee Corporation; Japan Ministry of Education, Science and Culture; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; Hitachi Foundation; Mitsui Foundation; International Longevity Centre of Tokyo; Swedish National Research Institute; Salens Foundation; Wenner-Gren Foundation; Hong Kong Society for Child Health and Development; Pacific Cultural Foundation; Novartis Foundation; and the Canadian National Department of Health and Welfare.