Rural employer perspectives on adult learner achievement in the United States

Abstract

Higher education opens doors to job enhancement and economic benefits to adult learners. Despite facing multiple barriers such as life–work–school time conflicts and financial constraints, adult learners continue to seek higher education and certifications. Rural employers also benefit from supporting degree completion or job-specific certifications because it allows them to attract and retain highly skilled employees. The goal of the current study was to qualitatively analyze data gathered from focus group interviews of senior managers. The results provide insights into how rural employers in the United States use employee education programs to reduce barriers to adult learner success. The importance of a bilateral relationship between institutions of higher education and employers to support adult learners is discussed.

Keywords

Adult learners senior managers higher education motivation barriers rural

Introduction

Higher education is perceived as a means to job enhancement and success by adult learners (Bowers & Bergman, 2016). However, they face several challenges to degree completion because of difficulties related to work–life–school balance (Autor, 2023; MacKeracher et al., 2006). An adult learner’s decision to enter higher education or seek certification is also strongly impacted by the level of support offered by their employer, family, and community (Sowl & Crain, 2021). Though there is a sizeable amount of literature on the motivations and barriers experienced by adult learners (e.g. Ait Ali et al., 2023; Comings, 2023; Gardner et al., 2022; Leyretana & Trinidad, 2022; Renner & Skursha, 2023; Sutton, 2023), literature focused on adult learners around the world (e.g. Maloney, 2021; Porras-Hernández & Salinas-Amescua, 2012; Prechotko & Kirby, 2022; Roosmaa & Saar, 2017; Salleh, 2019; Voss, 2022; Yunyan et al., 2024), and emerging research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g. Luka, 2023), there is a noticeable gap in research on the policies and support provided by employers to their employees, which could shape an adult learner’s journey. Hence, the results of the current study provide unique insight into the attitudes of employers in the United States (US), which could hinder or encourage adult learners to seek continuing education.

Current study

In this study, researchers interviewed senior managers to explore rural employer attitudes towards adult learning and initiatives to encourage their employees to seek higher education. The results of this study highlight the unique challenges faced by rural employers who are forced to compete with larger, urban businesses to recruit and retain high-achieving employees and will provide guidelines to help employers and institutions of higher education to collaborate to develop structures to enhance adult learner success.

Access to higher education remains a significant challenge for rural students due to socioeconomic, geographical, and institutional factors (e.g. Sowl & Crain, 2021). Adult learners in general face barriers related to family responsibilities, work commitments, lack of interest, lack of confidence, fear of failure, and social isolation (e.g. Mackeracher et al., 2006; Maloney, 2021; Ostendorff, 2023; Porras-Hernández & Salinas-Amescua, 2012; Prechotko & Kirby, 2022; Yunyan et al., 2024). But rural students may experience additional barriers and challenges transitioning to college due to a misunderstanding of the expectations or lack of college preparation (McNamee & Ganss, 2023). Rural students may pull away from higher education as they are more geographically isolated, more likely to identify as first generation and low-income, and have less community or parental support (Hudacs, 2020; McNamee & Ganss, 2023; Prechotko & Kirby, 2022; Sowl & Crain, 2021; Voss, 2022). Thus, they have to overcome financial constraints, availability of higher education institutions, and transportation issues (Hudacs, 2020; Sowl & Crain, 2021). However, rural adult students around the world are likely to pursue further education if it offers personal fulfilment and enhances employability (e.g. Prechotko & Kirby, 2022).

Employer factors that facilitate or hinder their employees’ decision to seek continuing education

With increased mechanization and technological advancements, highly skilled employees are an asset for employers (Gibbs et al., 2005; Hora, 2019). However, employers located in rural and sparsely populated areas in the United States struggle to hire and retain highly educated or skilled employees because of competition from urban businesses. Additionally, small and rural employers lack funds to develop effective in-house training or invest in tuition assistance programs (TAP; Lerman et al., 2004). In a report funded by the Federal Reserve System, Bozarth and Strifler (2019) found that rural employers are often under the threat of shutting down because they are unable to fill positions requiring high levels of skill. The rural United States depends on its local employers for jobs and economic stability. Hence, it is essential for institutions of higher education and professional organizations to develop opportunities for certification, training, and skill-building (e.g. Hudacs, 2020; Pyle, 2023). Also, employers need to provide incentives like TAP and flexible scheduling to encourage employees to seek continuing education.

Tuition assistance programs

Cost and student debt are major barriers to all adult learners, and especially rural learners, wanting to enter higher education (e.g. Bowers & Bergman, 2016; McNamee & Ganss, 2023; Sowl & Crain, 2021). To this end, employers often provide financial assistance mostly in the form of tuition reimbursement (IFEBP, 2019; Pattie, Benson, & Baruch, 2006). An attractive tuition benefit helps recruit and retain highly skilled employees. In a survey conducted at Cigna (a major health insurance company), researchers found that employees who took advantage of the financial incentives received promotions, wage increases, and were less likely to resign (Lumina Foundation, 2016). Cigna also registered a significant return on investment by retaining highly skilled employees and increasing productivity (Lumina Foundation, 2016). Hence, tuition assistance benefits both the employees and the business. However, the Society for Human Resource Management (2018) found a significant decline in the proportion of employers offering financial assistance in the United States since the 2008 recession. The percentage of employers providing tuition benefits reduced from 66% in 2008 to 51% in 2018. Employers take significant risks to sustain TAPs. Specifically, companies must invest a significant amount of money into employer-funded education, and they risk losing trained employees after they graduate, to competitors who are willing to provide higher salaries (e.g. Benson et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2018). Despite the risks, employers continue to invest in general (e.g. communication and leadership skills) and job-specific skill development training. Cappelli (2004) found that employees who seek tuition benefits often demonstrate above-average levels of productivity and employers reap the return on investment. Furthermore, companies that offer TAP have lower turnover rates (Boudreaux, 2021; Cappelli, 2004) and often attract employees who are inherently more productive and motivated to seek job advancement opportunities through continuing education (e.g. Autor, 2001; Lee et al., 2018). Additionally, employers institute policies that help reduce employee turnover and misuse of TAP funds. For example, several companies ask employees to spend at least 1 year on the job before they can access tuition benefits and require them to sign contracts that indicate that it is the employees’ responsibility to repay the tuition benefit if they leave the company before a specified date (IFEBP, 2002). TAP opportunities have also been found to increase employee commitment and positive feelings towards their employers because employees feel valued by their employers’ investment in their career advancement (e.g. Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Interestingly, Pattie et al. (2006) found that employees who used TAP funds to get degrees that were unrelated to their jobs had higher turnover rates. Employee turnover was also found to be higher after graduating with a degree (Benson et al., 2004). However, overall trends in the United States indicate that employer-assisted education remains a major human resource development strategy in many companies (Carnevale, Strohl & Gulish, 2015).

TAP trends in the United States show that employers prefer non-formal, on-the-job training. On average, companies spend about $413 billion on internal training programs, which is more than double that of their $177 billion annual investment in formal college education (Carnevale et al., 2015). In-house training programs tend to be job-specific, and time and cost-efficient compared to college degrees. In contrast, college degrees provide a broader range of skills because students enrol in a range of classes as they work towards their degrees. Lerman and colleagues (2004) suggested that compared to college degrees, job-specific training could prevent employees from leaving because their skills are tied to their current position and do not generalize to other firms. However, employer-supported post-secondary education remains an option for many employees in the United States. College degrees provide more marketable skills and help recruit and retain high-achieving employees because it takes a significant amount of time to finish a college degree while holding a full-time job (Cappelli, 2004). Though there is a debate about the viability of in-house versus college-based training, many US-based companies continue to use both training modalities.

Flexible scheduling and supervisor support

Time to complete training and continuing education is crucial for adult learner success (e.g. Prechotko & Kirby, 2022). However, companies are not required to provide leave or flexible work hours to complete continuing education, only if the training is required by the employer (Cappelli, 2004). Further, Butler (2007) found that adult learners must juggle work, life, and education requirements, and academic performance often suffers because of a paucity of time to work towards a degree. Additionally, working part-time is often impossible because of a significant loss of pay. From the employer’s perspective, TAP leads to increased productivity; however, if employees fail to achieve the minimum grade of C due to work–life issues, employers are at risk of losing their return on investment (Gagnon & Packard, 2012). Additionally, researchers found that encouragement from supervisors and flextime opportunities improved adult learner academic performance and work–life conflicts (e.g. Gagnon & Packard, 2012; Perry-Jenkins, Bourne, & Meteyer, 2007). Overall, financial assistance encourages adult learners to seek continuing education (e.g. McNamee & Ganss, 2023); however, time flexibility and supervisory support are also crucial components in reducing the barriers to seeking continuing education and career advancement opportunities. The current study adds to the literature on employer-funded higher education and examines the attitudes of senior managers that could either facilitate or hinder their employees’ pursuit of higher education and career advancement.

Method

Procedure

This study was approved by the university’s institutional review board, and researchers contacted the senior managers of the companies to set up the focus group interviews. The researchers recruited participants from five organizations from the banking, healthcare, and manufacturing sectors in the US state of Indiana. The businesses were a mix of small and medium-sized enterprises and large companies. Specifically, companies were selected and recruited based on key industries in the university’s geographic region, as well as connections to the university’s alumni network. Many of the companies recruited in this study have hired or are likely to hire students who graduate from the university’s undergraduate or graduate programs. Though the organizations were recruited through connections to the university, these relationships were only used to make the initial contacts. The researchers maintained independence from any conflicts of interest pertaining to recruitment or marketing for the university. The interview questions deliberately maintained a broad scope, avoiding any inclination to steer participants towards discussions about specific options – whether it be community college, the researchers’ public institution, private institutions in the area, or industry-specific choices utilized by certain companies or individuals in the sample.

The research team conducted five focus groups, each comprising of 5–8 participants. Focus groups are used extensively by qualitative researchers to leverage within group dynamics to gather a diverse array of data (e.g. Coenen et al., 2012). Though individual interviews encourage participants to provide detailed information with personal disclosures, focus groups have distinct, significant benefits. Specifically, focus groups have been found to be more time efficient for participants and can provide a supportive environment to encourage sensitive information (Guest et al., 2017). Focus groups of senior managers were used in the current study mainly to reduce time commitment for the interviewees. Researchers were given limited access (time) on-site, and managers were all very busy during the workday. Additionally, the focus group format allowed researchers to elicit a range of different perspectives and lead an organized discussion on topics related to adult learner education (Sagoe, 2012). The research team took advantage of the focus group interview style by letting participants build off of each other to spark additional discussion between participants. The senior manager focus groups were asked a set of 10 questions to gather information on their needs or wants for workforce education and their ability to provide financial support and flexibility to employees who want to pursue degrees or certifications.

Participants

A total of 29 senior managers participated in 5 focus groups. Of those 29 senior managers, 55% were female. The titles of those who participated in the study included chief officer, president, vice president, and department head.

Data analysis

Each focus group interview was video recorded. The interviews were transcribed by research assistants. All identifiable information was deleted, and pseudonyms were used to identify participants. The transcribed data was analyzed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The research team (two faculty members and two student research assistants) analyzed the data using six steps identified in the thematic analysis process. First, we read through the interview data several times to develop familiarity with the content. Second, the data was broken down into codes. A code is defined as a distinct, meaningful unit of information contained in the interview transcript. Third, each code was analyzed and assigned to an overarching theme. The research team met via video-conferencing to reach a consensus on clustering codes into meaningful themes. Additionally, some themes included significant sub-themes, which were identified, clarified, and defined. Fourth, it was essential to develop themes that were well described and distinct from one another (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Any overlap or issues with theme definitions were resolved through research team discussions. Fifth, each theme and sub-theme were defined. Finally, the themes and sub-themes were described in the research manuscript.

Since all the employers mentioned each theme, it was not meaningful to calculate frequencies based on number of participants. Hence, the frequency with which each theme was stated in the transcript helped the research team determine the relative importance of each theme. It must be noted that frequencies help sort through information and find patterns in the qualitative data. Though frequencies can enhance interpretation and enrich understanding of complex phenomena, quantitative data obtained from a small group of informants is inherently limited to their unique experiences and do not reflect variances in the larger population (Maxwell, 2010). The definitions of the themes and sub-themes, and their frequencies are discussed below.

Results

The analysis of the senior manager interview data revealed five major themes.

Barriers experienced by employees to return to school

Barriers were defined as the factors that could hinder employees from returning to school, and 11.62% of responses focused on this theme. The primary sub-theme was tuition reimbursement. All the companies surveyed in this study provided tuition reimbursement at the end of the semester, once employees passed classes with a C or higher grade. A total of 17% of responses referred to how several employees could not afford tuition and had to take out loans to pay for tuition upfront, which hindered them from pursuing higher education. One participant mentioned:

I think some of it’s because it’s a reimbursement program maybe it’s a little bit of a hurdle how do you come up with that first $3,000?

Additionally, financial issues, difficulty balancing work and life, and lack of return on investment in education were popular sub-themes, with participants noting:

Even if we can help them for school, employees need grant money to help support their family while they’re going to school.

A lot of them have children that go to school and got sports and do this and do that.

Adult learners have come to the realization that or at least have the mindset that there’s less benefit to a four-year degree opposed to getting some type of certification.

Employee development plans

Employee development plans were defined as specific opportunities offered to aid education and growth, providing financial support to gain additional knowledge and skills that pertain to their job. This theme was mentioned in 35.60% of responses. The leading sub-theme within the employee development plan was tuition reimbursement programs, and 11% of responses focused on how tuition reimbursement could encourage employees to further their education, as one participant noted:

We rarely say no to anybody, because it has been communicated that we will support this reimbursement program.

Furthermore, flexible hours allow employees to be in school and continue working, with one participant describing:

Since we are open twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, if they want to just work weekends, if they want to work just evenings, or if they would need to work during the day and go to school during the evenings we have positions available.

Another participant noted how career counselling helps employees see how education could improve their job:

The HR department tries to step up career counseling and career pathing so that if you coming to the bank at an entry-level position you’ll have an understanding of what educational background you will need to move up through the organization.

The possibility of promotions after seeking continuing education and opportunities provided by employers to help employees seek education were identified as other major sub-themes:

We’re very committed to promoting [our employees].

Education fairs introduce employees to options and programs available to help them go back to school.

Recommendations for higher education

This theme included opportunities, programs, or services identified by the senior managers that institutions of higher education could provide to adult learners to help them successfully navigate continuing education. A total of 19.62% of responses included recommendations for higher education. Additionally, 18% of responses emphasized that higher education institutions should offer certification programs. Manager-participants explained that compared to degree programs, certifications are shorter, cheaper, and focused on helping employees accrue work-related skills.

A major sub-theme that emerged in the data was that employers would like to develop stronger bilateral relationships with institutions of higher education to encourage an exchange of information. Additionally, offering more hands-on learning environments to adult learners, delayed billing or billing at the end of the semester to allow adult learners to utilize tuition reimbursement, eliminating the need to take out loans, and creating industry-specific degree programs were the top sub-themes mentioned by participants:

We need employees to have more hands-on training before jumping right into a position.

Delayed billing could help overcome the challenge of paying for school upfront.

Maybe a specialization within Finance degree in banking that would help people understand what types of careers there are.

Future challenges for employers

The future challenges theme included upcoming business challenges identified by the senior managers within their industries and was mentioned in 20.66% of responses. The primary sub-theme seen in the data was trouble with recruiting employees, and 43% of responses stated that companies have had a difficult time attracting new employees due to starting salaries or competition from larger businesses, as noted by one participant:

We’re not … big … and that’s one of the challenges we face in this community is that I can’t compete with the [major auto manufacturers].

Furthermore, participants noted the themes of tight regulations, rapidly changing technology, data security, and the need for employees to continually update their skills:

Well, we’ve always been very regulated.

Now IT is always changing you know it’s supposed to be every 5 years, then they changed it to 3, and now it’s every 60 minutes basically.

Cybersecurity is a challenge for everybody, not just us.

Casting used to be taking hot metal and pouring it into molds and now they are literally printing 3D metal prints. So, I think the term education is retooling our workforce.

Employer emphasis on continuing education

This theme encompassed the strong emphasis placed on higher education and employee education and was observed in 12.54% of the responses. The chief sub-theme noted by researchers was the importance placed on furthering education for employees and 50% of responses identified that continuing education was a crucial part of enhancing their company, as one participant said:

We do see the importance of an education.

The encouragement given by managers to employees or adult learners to seek continuing education, providing supportive check-ins with employees to discuss barriers and frustrations as they pursue higher education, and hosting education fairs where employers invited institutions of higher education to their premises were top sub-themes, with participants mentioning:

We are very open for them to come sit with us and talk about their career pathing, what they want to do, and the goals they need to reach before they get to the next level.

I ask what are you studying right now, what are your barriers, what’s frustrating to you.

We do the college education fair where you bring everybody in, and they can see what kind of options they have.

Discussion

Focus group interviews of senior managers working in five companies in rural Indiana were conducted. Participants were asked to describe how they encourage their workers to seek continuing education through incentives and employee development plans, identify barriers that impede the willingness of employees to return to school, and provide recommendations to institutions of higher education to support adult learners. Five major themes emerged in the data: barriers experienced by employees to return to school, employee development plans, recommendations for higher education, future challenges for employers, and employer emphasis on continuing education.

National trends indicate that support for employees’ continuing education is a major human resource development strategy for employers (Carnevale et al., 2015; Fuller et al., 2023). In the current study, the employer emphasis on continuing education theme also revealed that the senior manager–participants value continuing education in their institutions and invest resources to encourage employee development. The senior managers shared that they have regular discussions with their direct reports to help them identify certifications, training, or degree programs that could be beneficial to their professional development and brainstorm ways that their employees could overcome barriers to continuing education. Previous research highlighted that continuing education benefits both the employer and their employees (e.g. Boudreaux, 2021). Specifically, employers who offer continuing education attract high-achieving employees (Cappelli, 2004) and experience a significant return on investment because highly trained employees are more productive on average (Lumina Foundation, 2016). Also, the senior manager–participants in this study were all in rural areas. Rural adult learners around the world face higher education challenges (e.g. Agyekum, 2023; Desjardins, Rubenson, & Milana, 2006; Prechotko & Kirby, 2022; Roosmaa & Saar, 2017; Salleh, 2019; Voss, 2022); thus, employee development programs can help rural employers recruit and retain highly qualified employees and keep their businesses afloat while facing intense competition from large, urban competitors (Gibbs et al., 2005).

The researchers in the current study did not specifically recruit employers who offered tuition assistance programs; however, the sample did end up being dominated by companies that have tuition reimbursement efforts in place. Organizations that offer TAP are likely to value education or at least the impact that these programs can have on employee development and retention. This could restrict the distribution of the current sample and results. As this is not a random sample, this could limit the strength of the results. Nevertheless, if an organization does not offer TAP, then the results of this study point to the value of offering one. Adult learners face many struggles in the pursuit of continuing education, and the cost is at the top of the list. Any organization wishing to improve overall, and develop their employees specifically, should see a return on investment with TAP (Teodorovicz et al., 2023).

Senior manager–participants recognized that their employees experienced financial issues, difficulty maintaining work–life balance, not having enough time on their hands due to family obligations, and low perceived return on investment in education. To address the barriers, participants reported that they provide a range of employee development plans which included incentives such as tuition reimbursement, flexible time to attend classes, career coaching, and opportunities for job advancement after completing higher degrees or certifications. Work–school–life conflict and difficulties paying for higher education are significant barriers for adult learners (Laughman, Boyd & Rusbasan, 2016). Education needs to be flexible, accessible, and affordable (Maloney, 2021). Thus, TAP funds, supervisory support, and flexible scheduling are essential in helping employees feel valued and encouraging them to seek continuing education opportunities (e.g. Gagnon & Packard, 2012).

Employers in the rural United States struggle to find qualified employees because most college graduates tend to immigrate to urban areas in search of better-paying jobs (Bozarth & Strifler, 2019). This concern was reflected in the future challenges theme, where senior manager–participants pinpointed issues such as difficulties recruiting high-quality employees, cybersecurity problems, and an urgent need to help employees update their skills. This relates directly to the recommendations for institutions of higher education theme, in which senior manager–participants identified that rurally located universities could assist employers to address the challenges. Specifically, senior manager–participants recommended that universities should develop mutually beneficial relationships with local employers. For example, universities could visit local employers to provide information about educational programs and financial aid to adult learners, and offer short, online courses in cybersecurity and other industry-specific programs that could encourage adult learners to enrol. Employers could provide internships to college students and participate in job fairs on campus.

Implications

The current study included employers located in rural areas. It is necessary to discuss the implications of the results for rural companies because such employers face unique challenges with the recruitment and retention of employees. Demographic trends indicate that college graduates often migrate to urban centres in search of higher-paying jobs and opportunities, which creates a skill gap in rural areas (Mayer, Malin, & Olson-Hazboun, 2018). Carr and Kefalas (2009) coined the term ‘rural brain drain’ to describe the migration of younger, educated workers to high-opportunity urban areas. Bozarth and Strifler (2019) recommend that rural employers be creative with community outreach, human resource development, and adult learner employee education to train their existing workforce and attract productive employees. For example, many technical jobs in rural areas do not require a traditional 4-year degree. Hence, employers can collaborate with K-12 schools to provide work-based training and encourage students to apply for employment upon graduation. Additionally, employer-funded vocational training courses for adult learners in rural communities could also bridge skills gaps in manufacturing and information technology. Rural employers could also combine resources, or work with community organizations and government agencies, to provide ancillary support to their adult learner employees such as mentors, childcare, housing grants, or transportation to attract and retain employees (e.g. Bozarth & Strifler, 2019; Hudacs, 2020; Pyle, 2023). Finally, employers are encouraged to develop connections with local educational institutions by participating in job fairs, providing internship opportunities to college students, and inviting professors to conduct skill development courses on company premises. The connection between employers and higher education institutions is vital.

Senior manager–participants acknowledged that universities could develop stronger bilateral relationships with employers to serve the needs of adult learners. It is important for rural adult learners to understand what college resources are available (e.g. McNamee & Ganss, 2023; Pyle, 2023; Sowl & Crain, 2021). Senior managers identified cost, scheduling flexibility, and degree offerings as areas for improvement. More institutions could be creating industry-specific degree programs and offering certifications that are shorter, cheaper, and focused on helping adult learners gain hands-on skills. Additionally, improvements in the payment and tuition reimbursement process could be streamlined. Delayed billing or billing adult learners at the end of the semester could reduce out-of-pocket costs and allow more employees to utilize TAP.

The current research study provides valuable insights into how relationships between rural employers and universities can benefit the professional development of adult learner employees. However, there are some methodological limitations that need to be addressed. First, the small sample size of 29 senior manager-participants limits generalizability to a broader population. Second, purposive sampling was used to identify companies located in a limited geographic location. Future research could include a broader selection of employers across several rural areas in the United States to create a representative sample. Finally, the researchers in the current study utilized focus groups to collect large amounts of data in a short period of time. Though focus groups are time efficient and encourage participants to discuss a range of topics, they often generate superficial data compared to individual interviews (Guest et al., 2017). A combination of focus groups and individual interviews can enhance the quality of data and produce a wider range of themes. Although the current study is a small qualitative investigation into the perspectives of rural senior managers, several significant conclusions can be drawn from the results.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that businesses and universities located in rural areas could be more strategic in their collaborations and partnerships to approach the adult learner market. It is also vital to recognize the diversity of rural populations, work to meet students where they are, and build partnerships between education, workforce, and community (Davis et al., 2019; Desjardins et al., 2006; Ostendorff, 2023; Roosmaa & Saar, 2017; Stephen, 2023).

Overall, the senior manager–participants in this study considered supporting employee continuing education as a key human resource development strategy and as a means of helping their employees stay current with their skills. Employer-supported continuing education has been found to be associated with positive outcomes such as employee retention, attracting highly productive employees, lower turnover, and higher employee commitment to the company (e.g. Benson et al., 2004; Kraimer et al., 2011). However, providing employees with skills that are in high demand in the industry is risky because they could use their training to seek higher-paying jobs at other firms (Cappelli, 2004). Lawler and Finegold (2000) suggested that senior managers must be diplomatic while selecting employees for training opportunities. For example, adult learners who are encouraged to seek associate or bachelor’s degrees have lower turnover than those who seek higher-level graduate degrees. However, it is also important to retain employees with graduate degrees. Workforce strategies such as providing work opportunities that match higher-level skills could help retain employees who pursue advanced degrees (Benson et al., 2004). Another workforce development strategy is providing in-house training or certifications that are specific to the skills required to succeed within the company. On-the-job training is cost-effective and is associated with job-specific skill development which could increase productivity and employee retention (Lerman et al., 2004). Also, employers must provide flexible scheduling time if the in-house training is made compulsory for their employees (Cappelli, 2004). Such on-the-job training is accessible for adult learners who often have limited time to devote to skill development.

Though TAP and on-the-job training are essential for adult learner development, the senior managers in the current study also identified the importance of flexible scheduling, supervisory support, and regular check-ins to help employees stay motivated and on track while pursuing challenging higher education degrees. Hence, a combination of tangible employee development opportunities (e.g. tuition reimbursement, in-house training, and certifications) and intangible support (e.g. check-ins on career goals and interests, and supervisory encouragement) are key strategies that employers can use to facilitate adult learner education (e.g. Kraimer et al., 2011).

Overall, the current study makes important contributions to the literature by expanding the senior manager and rural viewpoints. Institutions of higher education should connect with employers and adult learners to promote their key role in career advancement. Universities should search for opportunities, programs, and services to encourage adult learners to use TAP when available. Senior managers identified that adult learners are looking to balance cost and value, see marketing and communication geared towards them, find classes that fit their schedules, and take advantage of support in the form of transition assistance and re-integration guidance.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Lumina Adult Promise Grant Indiana Commission for Higher Education.

ORCID iDs

Yamini Bellare

Adam R. Smith

Appendix

Employer Interview Questions

(1) What type of programs/policies are you willing to offer to support adult learners returning to school?

(2) What current initiatives do you have to encourage employees to return to school to complete a degree or certification?

(3) What is included in your current employee development plans?

(a) Follow up if needed: How does your current employee development plan incorporate continuing education?

(4) What resources are you willing to contribute towards educating members of your workforce?

(5) How do you use colleges or programs to help you train and develop employees?

(6) What incentives are you able to provide to employees in order to help them complete a degree or certification?

(7) Would you provide tuition reimbursement?

(8) Would you allow employees to attend class on company time? Or have flexible work hours?

(9) How would you support your direct reports if they decided to return to school?

(10) Optional Questions:

(a) How many people does your organization currently employ?

(b) Does your organizational culture support adult learners?

Author Biographies

Yamini Bellare is a licensed psychologist (Indiana) and an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology and Child Development at California State University Stanislaus. She has a Ph.D. in Counselling Psychology from Ball State University Indiana. Her research interests include career development, qualitative data analysis, cross-cultural research on everyday stranger harassment and coping, mindfulness, and self-compassion.

Adam R. Smith is an Associate Professor of Management in the School of Business at Indiana University Kokomo. He is an award-winning teacher who has won the Indiana University Trustees Teaching award and the Claude Rich Excellence in Teaching award; additionally, he was selected as an IU Career EDGE Fellow and an Indiana University Bicentennial Professor. He earned a Ph.D. in Business Administration from the University of Tennessee.

Kelcee Cochran graduated in 2021 from Indiana University Kokomo with a B.A. in Psychology. Currently works for Four County as a School Based Skills Trainer. She supports elementary-aged students with emotional or behavioural difficulties, which negatively impact academic and social performance in schools. Kelcee provides psycho-educational group experiences and individual skill-building sessions to assist students in learning new ways to cope with stressors or navigate social experiences.

Samuel Garcia-Lopez obtained a B.S. in Psychology and Criminal Justice from Indiana University Kokomo. He is pursuing a doctoral degree in Counselling at Ball State University. His research interests revolve around clinical judgement, multiculturalism, eating disorders, and clinical assessments.

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