Integrated interdisciplinary design and development of an adaptive canopy with thin-film photovoltaic modules

Introduction

The development of sustainable cities requires reducing CO₂ emissions, improving urban resilience, and creating livable public spaces. Central strategies in the transition toward low-carbon urban systems include a shift from fossil fuel dependency to cleaner energy alternatives, coupled with a reduction in overall energy consumption at the city scale. ¹ Renewable energy technologies play a critical role in meeting these sustainability objectives. Within this context, the European Union has established ambitious targets, aiming for 32.5 % of total energy generation from renewable sources by 2030, and the realization of a carbon-neutral building stock by 2050. ² Photovoltaic (PV) systems, in particular, have witnessed exponential growth in deployment over the past decade and are projected to see continued expansion within urban environments. ³ Despite these advancements, the widespread application of PV technologies remains predominantly confined to building rooftops and ground-mounted systems, largely due to the inherent self-weight of conventional silicon-based PV modules. ⁴ Consequently, suboptimal module orientations and energy losses induced by shading frequently arise as limiting factors. ⁵ At the same time, the integration of PV technologies into civil infrastructures, including urban elements and public spaces, is gaining increasing relevance. The development of such systems necessitates close interdisciplinary collaboration, involving teams of architects and engineers from diverse fields.

Since cities use about 75% of the world’s energy, producing renewable energy directly within cities can greatly improve their environmental, economic, and social sustainability. ⁶ The integration of PV technologies within the urban context has been exemplified in several large cities, each adopting context-specific strategies aligned with their unique climatic, spatial and economic conditions. Notable examples include Barcelona, which has implemented widespread PV installations across rooftops and public infrastructure ⁷ ; London, where PV integration is coupled with public infrastructure and digital technologies ⁸ ; and Singapore, which employs advanced urban planning frameworks and technological innovation to embed solar energy systems within the cityscape. ⁹ Additional instances include Amsterdam, where PV systems are applied across varying urban scales, ¹⁰ as well as Helsinki and Oslo, both of which incorporate PV technologies within broader smart city initiatives aimed at reducing carbon emissions and enhancing urban efficiency. ¹¹ These different ways of using PV technologies show that strategies can be adapted to fit the unique features of each city, highlighting the need for customized solutions to support sustainable urban development.

To maximize solar energy yield, actuated mechanical systems are employed to enable continuous reorientation of PV modules, ensuring their alignment remains perpendicular to the incident solar radiation throughout the day. ¹² These systems typically possess one or two degrees-of-freedom (DOF), facilitating different modes of angular adjustment.^13–15 Dual-axis mechanisms have been shown to outperform single-axis alternatives under various operational conditions.^16–18 The composition and operation of such mechanical systems are based on the mechanical structure, electric equipment and electronics. ¹⁹ Despite their proven efficiency and technological maturity, the widespread adoption of solar tracking systems remains rather limited, primarily due to the elevated construction, operational and maintenance costs associated with the additional mechanical components.^20–25

An emerging and promising approach in the development of adaptive systems integrated with PV modules involves the utilization of transformable structures capable of altering their configuration while reorienting the PV modules. These systems encompass a range of structural typologies, including tensegrity systems, scissor-like elements, rigid-bar linkage assemblies, and origami-inspired configurations, which have predominantly been applied at the level of the primary structure or building envelope. ²⁶ In transformable tensegrity systems, linear motion actuators may substitute compression members or be introduced as variable-length tensile elements. Scissor-like elements incorporate rotational actuators either at hinge connections or linear actuators in place of the members. Rigid-bar linkage systems employ actuation at the joints or supports of the bar elements, while origami-based systems achieve transformation through hinge-like creases embedded within foldable geometries. In scenarios where actuation devices are directly embedded within the primary members or joint interfaces of the structure, a corresponding increase of the system self-weight must be accounted for in the design. At the PV module level, a significant reduction in overall self-weight can be attained through the deployment of thin-film PV technologies, such as copper indium gallium selenide (Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ or CIGS). These thin-film modules exhibit comparable efficiency to conventional silicon-based PV modules, while offering additional benefits such as geometric flexibility and lower embodied energy.^27,28 An innovative solution addressing the need for lightweight PV systems with built-in solar tracking capabilities is the hybrid soft-hard material, pneumatically driven, two-axis actuator with variable stiffness. ²⁹ This actuator offers key advantages such as a high power-to-weight ratio, large range of motion, low inertia, and straightforward manufacturing. It consists of a single-body, three-chamber elastomeric actuator combined with a metal two-axis joint. The prototype was integrated into the cantilever elements of an adaptive building envelope system using thin-film photovoltaic modules mounted on aluminum substrates with one actuator dedicated to each module. ³⁰ These actuators enable the modules to rotate into various spatial positions to optimize solar energy capture. ³¹ Across all implementations, the design of such adaptive systems aims at modularity, potential for mass customization, reduced self-weight and spatial footprint, high stiffness under external loading and enhanced controllability and adaptability in their kinematic behavior.

The Sustainability Pavilion at EXPO 2020 in Dubai, designed by Grimshaw Architects, exemplifies the integration of PV systems within free-standing gridshell structures functioning as canopies over both, the primary building and adjacent public spaces. The pavilion features elliptical roof structures with dimensions of 120 × 90 m, complemented by tree-like canopy roofs measuring 15 × 22 m. These surfaces are clad with trapezoidal PV panels endowed with rotational movement to track the sun’s position throughout the day. This large-scale project effectively demonstrates the feasibility of using static PV systems at the urban scale. However, implementing PV systems on such a large scale also involves considerable embodied energy and resource use. A promising direction toward more sustainable, lightweight structures with integrated static thin-film PV is found in the development of energy-generating sun sails. ³² A key milestone in this area is the interdisciplinary “Spline” project, an organic photovoltaic (OPV) lightweight installation created at the University and School of Art, Kassel. ³³ In this project, a 30 m² tensile structure incorporates 300 OPV cells. The structural system consists of a network of prestressed ropes and anchoring cables, along with several aluminum struts that also serve as mounting supports for the OPV modules.

At a smaller scale, a modular, flower-inspired shading system has been proposed, incorporating PV panels within petal-like elements that function as unitized roofing for public spaces. ³⁴ The system is supported by a spatial truss, and its actuation mimics the opening motion of a flower’s petals. Rotational motion of the PV panels is achieved through a series of rods linked to a central rotating bar, which is anchored to a circular ring component. The structural unit is designed for flexibility in placement, either directly on the ground or elevated on a vertical mast. A distinct example includes a transformable skylight structural concept composed of six tensegrity units with sliding PV modules. ³⁵ The translational motion of the modules is facilitated by control cables that interconnect the system’s elements. Similarly, a tensegrity membrane roof structure integrating PV modules is supported by rotating struts along the span. ³⁶ Actuation in this system is enabled by a network of continuous, length-adjustable cables positioned beneath the membrane level. Another application of thin-film PV technology has been proposed for a reconfigurable, temporary building envelope made of ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) membranes. ³⁷ In this case, the repositioning of the PV modules is achieved through the reconfiguration of the building itself, rather than by using a dedicated mechanical tracking system. Moreover, capturing solar energy may not be the structure’s sole or primary function.

A critical assessment of the examples discussed highlights the key pillars driving progress in the design and development of structural systems with integrated PV modules. For static PV installations, structural lightweight and flexibility offer clear advantages, both in terms of construction efficiency and energy required for erection, assembly and maintenance. In adaptive PV systems, using a minimal number of actuators, capable of providing sufficient motion for solar tracking and suitable for lightweight PV modules, can help maintain reduced overall structural weight, while also reducing associated costs, control system complexity, and energy required for actuation. The potential for versatility and seamless integration of such systems with a minimal number of actuators and simplified control, has been demonstrated by the authors through the design of an adaptive building envelope incorporating thin-film PV modules. ³⁸

The aforementioned examples underscore the critical role of transformability, the implementation of which encompasses multiple disciplines, including architecture, structural, mechanical and control engineering. Related interdisciplinary and collaborative work processes in educational settings combine physical and computational models at various scales.^26,39,40 The effective realization of such adaptive systems necessitates the early involvement of the interdisciplinary teams, with each discipline contributing specialized expertise in alignment with the project’s objectives and functional requirements. The development process comprises iterative stages of conceptual synthesis, performance evaluation and design verification, which collectively guide the progression from initial concept ‘synthesis’ to ‘evaluation’ and ‘verification’.

Given the largely unexploited potential of PV integration in open public spaces, the design and development of an adaptive canopy system incorporating thin-film PV modules was proposed. It seeks to expand the applicability of solar technologies in such contexts while enhancing their performance. The design is aimed at a lightweight structural composition with a minimal number of embedded control actuators, strategically positioned externally to the system body, as well as reduced control complexity. Beyond its function as a canopy, the adaptive system may also be deployed as a vertical screen within public spaces or integrated into existing and new buildings, including terrace and rooftop applications (Figure 1). While the parametric digital modeling approach underlying the canopy system has been presented elsewhere, ⁴¹ the current study delineates the integrated design and development process through a sequence of discrete yet interrelated stages. These include the parametric design of the system, fabrication of structural components, Finite-Element Analysis (FEA) of structural performance, investigation of the system’s kinematic behavior, energy efficiency evaluation of the PV modules and the realization of a small-scale prototype for validation of both the design and the kinematics. Thus, this study establishes a systematic workflow encompassing parametric digital design, fabrication and assembly, in enhancing both, the articulation and structural expression of the adaptive system.OPEN IN VIEWER

Methodological approach

The proposed methodological framework employs an integrated interdisciplinary approach based on generative computational design principles. This systematic workflow facilitates the development of adaptable systems through parametric control of component geometry and composition. The process comprises five interdependent phases that maintain direct or indirect continuous feedback with the initial digital model, enabling concurrent: (1) design refinement through iterative geometric modification, and (2) performance optimization of component fabrication and operation (Figure 2). This bidirectional workflow ensures that material constraints, structural behavior and functional requirements inform the design evolution at each development stage, while maintaining flexibility for architectural adaptation across varying application scenarios. The individual phases of development are as follows:

(1) The geometrical parametric control algorithm developed using the Grasshopper visual programming environment within Rhinoceros 3D modeling software.^42,43 The computational tool systematically defines the system’s key geometric parameters, including member dimensions, nodal positions and connection details. During conceptual design, the parametric model generates and exports discrete configuration states, as defined in the present study. The algorithm’s flexible framework permits real-time design modifications while maintaining geometric consistency, significantly reducing the iteration time between design alternatives.

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Figure 2.

Flowchart of methodological approach of the integrated interdisciplinary design and development of the system concept.

Spatial structure

The primary structure of the adaptive system consists of a cable net spanning an orthogonal aluminum frame. The frame is supported on four corner columns. The system’s modular design allows for horizontal expansion through integration of additional frames, with each set of four frames sharing a common column support at their respective corners. A secondary system of aluminum struts is suspended from the cable net and interconnected via control cables at their upper and lower ends. The struts’ upper extensions serve as mounting points for the aluminum plates, on which the thin-film PV modules are attached. An exploded view of the structural unit and its components is shown in Figure 3.OPEN IN VIEWER

The spatial inclination angle of the struts can be independently adjusted along the vertical planes XZ and YZ by modifying the length of the control cables’ end segments within each strut row. The cable length is controlled by a pair of pulleys at each end. A single geared motor, linked to each aluminum frame section, drives the corresponding pulley row through a rotating shaft. The kinematics enable the struts to remain parallel to each other through synchronous rotation along both axes, while aligning the PV modules with the solar motion. Consequently, each structural unit operates with only four actuators mounted on the aluminum frame. By installing the actuators on the primary frame, detached from the lightweight system body, the weight of the latter remains unaffected. Figure 4 illustrates the system components on the vertical planes.OPEN IN VIEWER

The parametric control algorithm developed for the system’s geometry governs the number, dimensions and relative spacing of the PV modules, as well as the strut height, to prevent interference and shading of the neighboring PV modules. The algorithm regulates strut rotation along both vertical axes (XZ and YZ), ensuring kinematic compliance with solar tracking requirements. Thus, the adaptive system’s generative design prioritizes geometric adaptability, optimizing position-specific performance, while validating kinematic behavior during the preliminary design phase. This approach maximizes solar energy capture by the thin-film PV modules through enhanced rotational range, while preventing collisions during reconfiguration.

The case study examines a single structural unit measuring 5.6 × 5.6 m in rectangular configuration, supported by 2.6 m high columns. The aluminum frame follows a 0.8 m grid pattern along both horizontal axes, with 1.0 m long struts positioned at each grid intersection. The lower ends of the struts connect to the lower secondary cables, while the upper secondary cables attach at a vertical offset of 0.6 m. The cable net B maintains a fixed offset of 0.3 m from the secondary cables. Rigid aluminum plates (0.6 × 0.6 m) mount to the struts’ upper ends, supporting an array of 36 thin-film PV modules (Figure 5). At this stage, the system incorporates a rotational limit of ±45° from the struts’ initial position along both, XZ and YZ planes to prevent member collisions during operation.OPEN IN VIEWER

The structural components and material properties were defined using Geometry Gym plug-in components within the Grasshopper interface. The supporting steel columns, with a height of 2.6 m, comprise square hollow sections (SHS) 180 × 180 × 8 mm manufactured from S450 steel (elastic modulus: 210,000 MPa). The 5.6 × 5.6 m aluminum frame incorporates four UPN 350 sections, rigidly connected to the columns. The vertical struts (1.0 m length) utilize circular hollow sections (CHS) 60 × 6 mm, with aluminum material properties assigned as follows: elastic modulus: 69.6 GPa, yield strength: 241.3 MPa. The steel cables (10 mm diameter, S450 material, elastic modulus: 24.82 GPa) connect to the struts at vertical offsets of 0, 0.3, and 0.6 m from their lower ends. All material properties and section dimensions were consistently applied throughout the numerical model.

The structural unit’s primary members are interconnected via steel plates at all frame joints. The cable net anchors to steel plates attached to the frame section webs, while the upper and lower control cable segments wind around 80 mm diameter pulleys mounted on steel plates connected to the same frame webs. All cable terminations secure to steel plates fixed to the struts. The PV modules mount onto aluminum plates, which rigidly connect to the struts through bottom-mounted reinforcement plates. The actuator units are attached to the primary frame section webs using steel angle brackets (Figure 6). This connection scheme ensures uniform load transfer throughout the structural system.OPEN IN VIEWER

Structural analysis

The system configurations were exported from the Geometry Gym plug-in (Grasshopper) to SAP2000 for FEA. The models consisted of a set of elements interconnected at the nodes. The primary frame incorporated a body constraint to simplify result interpretation. The cable elements were simulated with three-segment discretization and 1 kN initial tension at one end to minimize sag. The edge control cables were assigned undeformed lengths to accurately represent their continuous path between connections. A uniform 1 kN prestress was applied to all cable elements. This prestressing strategy effectively counteracted self-weight-induced vertical deformations in the cable net. The 0.6 × 0.6 m aluminum plates of 10 mm thickness supporting the PV modules were modeled using four-triangle thin shell meshes with a diaphragm constraint, neglecting local shell deformation effects. The analysis excluded geometric imperfections and initial deformations, considering only geometrical nonlinearity at full scale to obtain realistic estimates of the member internal forces and stresses.

FEA accounted for both structural self-weight and a uniform wind load of 1 kN/m² applied to the projected surface area of the aluminum plates along the X-axis. Cable prestress was applied prior to wind load implementation. The system motion maintains symmetry about the Y-axis, with analysis performed at discrete strut rotation increments of 0°, 15°, 30°, and 45° about both X and Y axes. The 0° reference configuration corresponds to vertically oriented struts (and consequently horizontally aligned PV modules) in both XZ and YZ planes. This rotational scheme generated 16 distinct system configurations, each representing a locked-joint state with specific XZ and YZ plane rotations. The analysis assumed quasi-static conditions, neglecting inertial effects due to slow operational motions. In all cases, the response of the system was within the material elastic range.

FEA results demonstrate consistent trends across all system configurations. As strut rotation increases from 0° to 45°, the maximum axial forces in the cables and vertical (Z-axis) displacement of the aluminum plates increase proportionally (Figure 7). The 45°/45° configuration (XZ/YZ planes) produces peak values for both cable forces and plate displacements, with maximum axial forces reaching 6.421 kN in control cables and maximum displacements measuring 42.004 mm (Z-axis) and 2.894 mm (X-axis) (Figure 8). Distinct extreme values emerge in other configurations: the 45°/0° case yields the maximum cable net axial force (6.148 kN), while the 45°/15° configuration generates the highest strut axial force (2.874 kN). These results indicate the system’s load-dependent behavior under varying configurations.OPEN IN VIEWER

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Figure 8.

FEA results for system case 45/45° ιn the XZ and YZ plane under wind load: (a) Axial force diagram; (b) Plates vertical displacement.

System kinematics

The system kinematics were analyzed based on the 3D model, initially developed in Grasshopper and exported from Rhinoceros 3D software. Towards maintaining a focus on the basic kinematic aspects, the model was simplified by omitting the lower secondary and control cables, certain construction details, and the actuation system. To accurately represent the kinematic behavior, design mates were defined to enforce all kinematic constraints between components. The struts were modeled as rigid bars, while prestressed cables were represented as fixed-length rigid members. Each strut was assigned appropriate rotational DOF to enable independent adjustment of PV module orientation (azimuth and altitude angles) relative to solar position (Figure 9). This modeling approach effectively decouples the two rotational motions, permitting independent control of each movement axis.OPEN IN VIEWER

The 3D simulation studies provided critical insights into the system kinematics and revealed operational limitations of the initial design. The analysis showed that strut adjustments generated undesirable resisting moments at the joints. Therefore, the design was modified to incorporate struts supported on spherical joint bearings with three rotational DOF. The cable net’s prestress force maintains the bearing units’ positions in the horizontal plane and supports the combined weight of the struts and PV module assembly. This revised configuration significantly improves the system’s kinematic performance while maintaining structural stability.

The secondary cable segments maintain fixed lengths between struts, enforcing parallel alignment and preventing rotational displacement about their longitudinal axis. This configuration necessitates precise cable prestress to ensure kinematic stability. Furthermore, in minimizing the number of actuators employed, the kinematic simulation led to the decision for the upper and lower cables around each horizontal strut array to form a closed loop via a single series of pulleys, instead of implementing double pulleys vertically placed on each strut array side as initially set in the preliminary design phase. In this way, one pulley would need to be actively driven, while the other, passively redirect the cable and close the loop. The active pulley would wind the cable edges in opposite directions, ensuring equal-length retraction and release on both sides of the struts. This mechanism requires half the number of pulleys than initially foreseen and a single electric motor, linked to only each pair of aluminum frame sections. Consequently, each structural unit is operated with only two actuators mounted on the aluminum frame.

Photovoltaics energy performance

The energy performance of the adaptive lightweight structure integrated with thin-film PV modules was evaluated under three operational scenarios: (1) a fixed configuration at the annual optimal rotation angle for maximum energy yield, (2) a static horizontal alignment of the PV modules, and (3) dynamic positioning across 28 discrete orientations optimized for solar irradiance capture during solstices (March 21, June 21, September 21, and December 21 at 12:00 local time). The system configurations were generated through combined vertical (VR) and horizontal (HR) strut rotations (0°, 15°, 30°, 45°) about the X- (with south orientation) and Y-axis (with east-west orientation), respectively. System geometry data exported from Rhinoceros software were analyzed using the PVGIS, ⁴⁷ which incorporates the PVGIS-SARAH2 solar radiation database developed by CM SAF. The PVGIS-SARAH2 database was selected for the PV energy performance analysis due to its high-resolution, satellite-based solar irradiance data that ensures consistent and validated datasets across diverse geographic regions. Solar irradiation data, comprising direct, diffuse, and reflected components, along with PV output measurements, were derived from 2020 average meteorological conditions for two representative locations: Nicosia, Cyprus (35.160°N, 33.378°E) and Stockholm, Sweden (59.330°N, 18.071°E). The simulations assumed copper indium selenide (CIS) thin-film PV technology with an installed capacity of 1.783 kWp and total system losses of 14 %.

The adaptive system configurations demonstrate superior energy production performance in both Cyprus and Sweden, with measured output exceeding fixed configurations by 18-25 % during optimal seasons (Figure 10). Regional performance variations reveal distinct seasonal patterns: Cyprus achieves peak PV efficiency in March (spring equinox conditions), while Sweden’s maximum output occurs in June (summer solstice), corresponding to 32 and 28 % increases respectively, compared to annual averages. December exhibits minimal energy generation in both locations, particularly in Sweden where output approaches 0 W/m². Notably, the adaptive system shows limited advantage (<5 % improvement) over fixed configurations during Sweden’s December period, suggesting that system reconfiguration provides minor improvements under extreme low-irradiance conditions. These findings underscore the critical influence of both seasonal solar geometry and geographic location on PV performance, indicating that while adaptive systems generally outperform fixed installations, their operational benefit becomes marginal during periods of severely limited solar availability. This supports the implementation of hybrid operation strategies, where adaptive functionality could be selectively disabled during winter months in high-latitude locations to reduce unnecessary actuation energy consumption. Additionally, during periods with increased solar availability, the adaptive elements can also reduce cast shadows, thereby enhancing solar access and comfort in the space beneath.OPEN IN VIEWER

Prototype development

The structural and control system was designed according to modular principles to facilitate component interchangeability and simplified assembly procedures. The configuration minimizes actuation requirements while achieving full system transformability and reduced self-weight through optimized material distribution. A 1:5 scale prototype was developed, featuring a 1.3 × 1.3 m welded orthogonal frame constructed from C-channel steel beams (80 × 45 × 7 mm), on which the cable net is anchored (Figure 11). The system incorporates a 6 × 6 array of aluminum struts (23 cm height, 10 mm outer diameter), with PV mounting plates (12 × 12 cm) positioned at 14 cm intervals along the secondary and control cables.OPEN IN VIEWER

Spherical joints interconnect the struts at the cable net level, while turnbuckle tensioners maintain the required prestress in the cable net. The joint assemblies permit ±55° rotational freedom (Figure 12), enabling comprehensive testing of the system’s kinematic performance under controlled conditions.OPEN IN VIEWER

The actuation system maintains symmetric cable displacement for each DOF through precisely wound pulleys that ensure equal-length cable pull and release during rotation (Figure 13). Two dedicated shafts, corresponding to each one of the systems DOFs, are mounted within the structural frame, supported by pillow block spherical bearings and connected to geared DC (direct current) motors via flexible couplers. This configuration enables synchronous movement of all control cables associated with each individual DOF.OPEN IN VIEWER

Custom 3D-printed mounting plates with planar surfaces are installed on the strut ends, providing stable support for PV module installation and subsequent energy performance evaluation (Figure 14). The plates’ geometric accuracy ensures proper alignment of the PV components during system reconfiguration.OPEN IN VIEWER

The prototype system employed an Arduino-based control platform with manual operation facilitated through a two-axis joystick interface connected to the motor drivers. Initial testing utilized this manual control scheme to validate the system kinematics and orientation adjustment capabilities. While continuous real-time solar tracking is also technically feasible, periodic discrete adjustments at optimized time intervals (e.g., discrete rotational angles of 15° in both vertical planes) may provide superior energy efficiency by minimizing unnecessary actuation cycles. This stepped adjustment strategy could reduce total system energy consumption compared to continuous tracking, while maintaining high potential solar energy capture based on the preliminary simulations.

The small-scale prototype underwent comprehensive kinematic testing to verify structural and mechanical performance. Experimental results confirmed precise parallel strut movement during shaft rotation, with uniform motion transmission throughout the array in both actuation directions. Testing validated complete decoupling of the two rotational degrees of freedom, enabling independent adjustment of azimuth (0-180°) and altitude (0-90°) orientations (Figure 15). Maintenance of control cable prestress proved critical for system stability. The system demonstrated effective combined axis control, achieving all specified orientation configurations with good angular precision, while maintaining structural integrity under repeated actuation cycles. These findings confirm the prototype’s capability to execute the required kinematic transformations while preserving the geometric relationships between components.OPEN IN VIEWER

Conclusions

In enhancing both the deployment potential and architectural integration of PV technologies in open public spaces, the design and development of an adaptive, lightweight prototype canopy structure has been presented. The system incorporates thin-film PV modules capable of following the solar trajectory, either in discrete stages or through continuous motion, thereby increasing energy generation. The structure consists of a primary cable net and a secondary system of struts and control cables, all anchored to a perimeter frame that is supported on vertical columns. This arrangement enables structural simplicity, flexibility in kinematics and minimum number of actuators detached from the lightweight structure body. Although the spatial expansion of the proposed canopy structure, in its current form, would introduce a relatively dense grid of columns in the area underneath, the number of columns could be reduced by further developing the overall structural system. This could involve introducing a hierarchy among structural members, such as increasing the height or modifying the typology of the peripheral beams.

In principle, the prototype structure design and development serve as case example of an integrated interdisciplinary approach based on generative computational design, numerical and experimental principles. The process comprises a number of interdependent phases (generative geometric development, preliminary structural design, load-deformation, kinematics and energy performance analysis) that maintain continuous feedback with the initial digital model. This enables two concurrent outcomes: (1) design refinement through iterative geometric modifications, and (2) performance optimization of component operation and fabrication based on numerical, kinematic analysis and a small-scale experimental model respectively. Although the adaptive prototype development involved a certain degree of interaction between individual development phases, in site-specific applications, the geometric design of the system is expected to play a more prominent interactive role during the engineering development and verification stages. In all cases, the degree of interaction followed in the specific case study between the preliminary design, engineering, and experimental phases of the kinetic system, driven by the system’s geometric definition, was decisive in the early-stage design, as it enabled step-by-step validation with reduced complexity rather than relying on continuous multi-objective optimization.

In particular, the computational methodology applied facilitates the utilization of unified digital platforms that integrate architectural design parameters with numerical analysis processes, enabling interdisciplinary design-driven research. This approach proves particularly valuable in supporting integrated design development through two key mechanisms: (1) early-stage coordination of discipline-specific technical requirements, and (2) systematic exploration of design alternatives through parametric modeling and simulation. Such computational integration enhances overall design efficiency, while simultaneously fostering technological innovation through iterative feedback loops between architectural conception and engineering validation.

Subsequent development will focus on scaling the prototype to full dimensions, with particular attention to: (1) quantitative assessment of the PV modules’ energy performance, (2) quantitative assessment of the shading caused by the PV modules on the ground, as well as the natural ventilation generated by tilting the PV canopy at night, (3) structural behavior under actual external loading, e.g., wind and snow loads, and according to the density and size of PV modules, (4) structural connection detailing for weatherproofing, and (4) actuator torque requirements. This progression will enable comprehensive performance validation under real-world operating conditions while addressing practical installation considerations for architectural integration.