Practicalities and dichotomies of education policy and practice of higher education in the Golden Triangle Area (Southeast Asia): Implications for international development

Abstract

Following the paradigm of globalization and development as a means of achieving a better life from the domestic sphere to the international landscape, different stakeholders including scholars, researchers, practitioners, policy makers, and institutions have been focusing on better informed policy and practice with an embedded mission of international development. Educational policymaking and implementation processes of a nation-state are constrained by global economic and political environments. The ongoing status of educational efforts in each country and disputing factors to the implementation of the education policies were examined. In this study, systematic literature review was conducted on the research of higher education policy in line with globalization and internationalization to depict the practicalities and dichotomies in implementing the sectors at the Golden Triangle Area (Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand). The internationalization of higher education in Golden Triangle Area needs promoting its strategic advantage in offering business opportunities through government policies to further promoting as an affordable study destination and attracting international students from ASEAN countries. The factors affecting the higher education quality and capacity of Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand include the need for better quality, barriers to research capacity development, the policy process of quality assurance, and the initiatives for internationalization in all three countries.

Keywords

Education policy and practice higher education practicalities dichotomies international development Golden Triangle Area (GTA—Southeast Asia)

Introduction

Passing through different centuries with poverty, inequality, wealth gaps, global pandemics, human, and environmental issues, development agendas have repositioned from Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in responding to the grand challenges posed by the 21st century. Since SDGs focus development for both people and the planet, they encompass the international development paradigm applicable to all people and countries with a global consensus promising a perspective on positive progress that has the potential to enhance the quality of life for everyone and establish a solid groundwork for stability and peace on a global scale. Since policy issues and challenges including poverty and climate change are worldwide, the development agenda is about to be positioned and framed within the international development context and this needs to be analyzed with informed and evidence-based policy and practices.

Especially, higher education policy making is a dynamic and complex process that covers the development, implementation, and evaluation of policies which shape the functioning and outcomes of higher education systems. As societies undergo rapid economic, social, and technological transformations, policymakers face numerous challenges in ensuring that higher education institutions are adequately prepared to address the changing requirements of sudents, the workforce, and the whole society. The promulgation of higher education policies is influenced by a number of factors, including political, economic, social, and cultural contexts. Policymakers have made efforts to develop policies which align with national development agenda in responding to societal needs by means of navigating complex power dynamics, stakeholder interests, and competing priorities. This requires a thorough understanding of the opportunities and challenges faced in the higher education sector, as well as the ability to anticipate and adapt to emerging trends and demands. Additionally, policy making in higher education is often shaped by international and regional frameworks including Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in line with the priorities of national policies.

A critical aspect of higher education policy making is ensuring access and equity in educational opportunities. Policies designed to promote access aim to remove barriers that hinder individuals from diverse backgrounds, including low-income students, marginalized groups, and individuals from rural or remote areas, from entering and completing higher education programs. Equity considerations go beyond access, addressing issues of fairness, inclusivity, and social justice within higher education systems. These policies strive to provide equal opportunities for success, regardless of students’ socioeconomic status, gender, ethnicity, or other personal characteristics. Effective policy making in this area involves the implementation of targeted initiatives such as financial aid programs, affirmative action policies, and support services that address the specific needs and challenges faced by underrepresented groups.

Background overview

Internationalization in higher education includes efforts such as branch campuses, cross-border collaborations, programs for international students, and establishing English-medium programs and degrees (Altbach and Knight, 2007). These initiatives aim to enhance the curriculum with international content and provide opportunities for knowledge and language acquisition. Monitoring to initiate the international pathways enables to maintain the quality of the international higher education environment. In terms of internationalization, all three countries (Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand) have taken initiatives to enhance their higher education systems.

The Confucian model has played a significant role in the higher education systems of East Asian countries, and it has enabled rapid progress in terms of mass tertiary participation, university quality, and research quantity and quality; it also has downsides in terms of social equity and potential state interference (Marginson, 2011).

Laos

Laos has made commendable strides in advancing its education system over the years. However, challenges such as quality disparities and limited resources persist. Laos’ commitment to promoting gender equality in education is commendable, but cultural norms and traditional roles continue to influence gender dynamics, especially in rural areas. Quality of education remains a significant concern in Laos, particularly in remote and underserved regions, where access to schooling remains limited due to geographical barriers and the scarcity of educational facilities. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) are vital components of Laos' education policy, aiming to meet the demands of the labor market and empower young people with practical skills for employment. However, access to higher education remains limited, primarily due to financial constraints and geographic barriers. Addressing these challenges requires innovative funding models and scholarships to support talented students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Moreover, enhancing the quality and relevance of higher education programs can contribute to producing skilled graduates who can contribute meaningfully to Laos’ development.

Myanmar

Myanmar’s long-term education development plan aims “to generate a learning society capable of facing the challenges of the knowledge-based society” (Myanmar Education Vision) and development of human resources, expansion of research, promotion of quality education, and preservation of national identity and values. Arnhold et al. (1998) designed the educational reconstruction conceptual framework to address educational reconstruction in countries that have undergone various types of crises. The framework considered five processes of educational reconstruction as physical reconstruction, ideological reconstruction, psychological reconstruction, provision of materials and curricular reconstruction, and human resources development. So, higher education policy and practice in Myanmar were undergoing significant changes as part of the country’s broader democratic transition and efforts to improve the quality of education.

Thailand

Thailand’s education system is divided between the Ministry of Education (MOE) and the Ministry of University Affairs (MUA). The MOE oversees education from pre-primary to higher education levels, including formal education programs within schools and institutions, non-formal education, and out-of-school programs. The MUA is primarily focused on higher education, managing, and supervising higher education institutions, both public and private, offering undergraduate and graduate programs. Thailand's higher education system exhibits significant diversity, featuring various types of institutions falling under the purview of 12 different ministries and agencies. The challenges facing Thai higher education institutions include financial stability, perceived institutional education quality, and aligning education with the demands of the digital era. Thailand’s education policy emphasizes the importance of a well-rounded education that nurtures students’ intellectual, social, and emotional development. The 6-3-3 model provides a structured approach to education, with primary schooling laying the foundation for essential skills and knowledge. Lower secondary education focuses on a broader curriculum to develop students' critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. In the upper secondary level, students have the option to specialize in either academic or vocational tracks, allowing them to pursue their interests and talents. This flexible system accommodates diverse learning styles and aspirations, preparing students for higher education or the workforce, thus contributing to a skilled and adaptable workforce in the country.

Relevant studies

Global trends in higher education and international development

The impact of globalization on higher education in developing countries has been a subject of extensive research. Marginson and Van Der Wende (2007) have highlighted the interactions and interdependence of forces at the local, national, and global levels in the discourse on the globalization of higher education. They argue that the value assigned to places of higher education in developing countries is deflated in comparison with academic careers in developed countries due to the opening of a global market in higher education (Hansen and Thøgersen, 2015). Furthermore, the sudden growth in higher education participation is seen as a global phenomenon affecting all countries, regardless of the position of governments (Parvazian et al., 2017).

Altbach and Knight (2007) highlighted that the contemplation of the economic, political, and societal factors of globalization and internationalization in higher education underpins contextualizing the global trends in higher education to modernize for greater international involvement.

Chankseliani et al. (2020) raised thought-provoking questions about the role of higher education in local, national, and global development, highlighting the need to delink higher education from immediate human capital and modernization needs of the nation-state and focus on promoting freedom and cultivating intellectual curiosity through education and research. This perspective challenges traditional notions of the developmental purposes of higher education and underscores the evolving nature of its role in global development.

Margison (2010) pointed out the impact of the global knowledge economy on higher education, the need for developing countries to adapt to the changing landscape of knowledge production and dissemination. Moreover, he gave particular attention to the concept offering valuable perspectives on the intertwining of higher education with the global knowledge economy as an essential facet of international development. This provides a valuable viewpoint on the changing role of higher education within the framework of the global knowledge economy, underscoring its importance in the realm of international development. The study of Othman et al. (2012) perpetuated that in Malaysia, it is imperative the impact of globalization on trends in entrepreneurship education and the demand for business education in the context of globalization.

Universities are trying to demonstrate their relevance and significance to society, driven by factors such as globalization, knowledge economies, and accountability regimes (Bekele and Ofoyuru, 2021). Furthermore, the need to build strategic international university–society partnerships in Africa underscores the evolving role of higher education institutions in addressing societal challenges and driving contextual relevance (Bekele et al., 2022).

The impact of global trends on specific national contexts, such as higher education in Kazakhstan and Ukraine, highlights the need to align with international trends in areas such as internationalization, digitalization, and lifelong learning (Rakhimbekova et al., 2022; Soroka and Akimova, 2020).

The discourse on the impact of globalization on higher education also extends to the quality and rankings of institutions. International rankings have been documented to have both positive and negative consequences for countries and institutions (Ramírez and Berger, 2014). Moreover, the phenomenon of research spending being incorporated into most global university-ranking schemes reflects the global nature of this issue (Rhoads, 2018).

The global trends in higher education and international development in developing countries are influenced by a complex interplay of factors such as globalization, economic policies, and educational paradigms (Marginson, 2010). It emphasizes the impact of the global knowledge economy on higher education, highlighting the need for developing countries to adapt to the changing landscape of knowledge production and dissemination. It discusses the internationalization of higher education and its global trends, highlighting the challenges faced by countries like Japan in competing within the global higher education landscape (Ota, 2018).

Moreover, Rakhimbekova et al. (2022) provided insights into the global trends and state policies in higher education in Kazakhstan, emphasizing the commercialization of education and its implications for developing countries (Othman et al., 2012; Rakhimbekova et al., 2022). The impact of globalization on trends in entrepreneurship education in higher education institutions shed light on the evolving educational priorities influenced by globalization in developing countries (Haider and Dilshad, 2015; Othman et al., 2012).

Specific challenges faced by post-colonial countries in implementing education reforms

The challenges faced by post-colonial countries in implementing education reforms are multifaceted and deeply rooted in historical, political, and socio-economic contexts. These challenges include issues related to access, language policy, quality of education, and the impact of colonial legacies on reform efforts (Boakye and Béland, 2022; Kretzer and Oluoch-Suleh, 2022; Tahir, 2022). Post-colonial countries such as Ghana have implemented policies to improve the quality of education, recognizing the centrality of education to economic growth and social development (Boakye and Béland, 2022). However, the historical influence of colonialism has impacted key reform efforts, as seen in the case of madrassa reform in Pakistan (Tahir, 2022). Furthermore, the influence of colonial modernity and neoliberal economic reforms has led to political decay and legitimation crises in post-colonial South Asia, reflecting the enduring impact of colonial legacies on governance and education (Kumar, 2020).

Moreover, the impact of globalization and technological advancement on African education underscores the ongoing changes and adaptations within post-colonial educational systems (Ruth and Ramadas, 2019). In Vietnam, educational reforms have focused on curriculum unification following the end of the war, reflecting the complexities of unifying divergent educational systems within a post-colonial context (Le et al., 2022). The historical context of educational reform in the Gold Coast underlines the enduring legacy of colonial figures and their influence on educational trajectories in post-colonial countries (Williams, 1964).

Tikyl and Bond (2013) argued that education in the postcolonial world is shaped by economic and political forces at various scales, including local, national, regional, and global, as well as other characteristics of contemporary globalization such as climate change and the spread of global diseases. He analyzed the role of education in peacebuilding in Sierra Leone, emphasizing the translation of theoretical rationales into practical implementation within the post-conflict educational landscape. Furthermore, it shed light on the challenges faced in the reintegration and education of former child soldiers in Sierra Leone, emphasizing the socio-economic factors influencing school re-enrollment after their release (Ellison, 2012).

Moreover, Tikly’s work resonates with the discussion of the construction of environmental problems and policies in Sierra Leone, highlighting the gap between the issues and the promoted solutions (Betancourt et al., 2008). Furthermore, Mycock (2017) provided insights into the politics of history education in a post-colonial world, shedding light on the complexities and challenges faced in reshaping educational narratives and curricula in the aftermath of colonialism.

Varaki. et al. (2022) provided a comprehensive analysis of the developments in the philosophy of education in Iran highlighting how the changes and priorities in higher education support the factors of law, economic growth, and the delivery of healthcare. The significant features evolved in the Islamic revolution on the philosophy and models of nursing education because of the broader impact of sociocultural and political shifts on the educational philosophies and practices in Iran. Varaki. et al. (2022) also discussed the influence of Western educational models and the impact of the Islamic government on the development of higher education in Iran. This historical perspective provides valuable insights into the evolution of higher education in Iran and its ideological underpinnings. This study pins the need to understand the evolving landscape of higher education in Iran encompassing its historical, sociocultural, and political dimensions and its implications for the future.

Incorporating global perspectives on higher education in developing countries

Global perspectives on higher education encompass a broad spectrum of subjects and difficulties. Altbach and Knight (2007) underscored the drivers and actualities behind the internationalization of higher education, illuminating the forces propelling 21st-century higher education towards increased global participation. Zhao (2010) examined the challenges posed by globalization on education and their implications for teacher training, stressing the necessity of preparing educators with global competencies (Usher and Williams, 2022). Harun et al. (2019) analyzed Romanian higher education through a global and regional comparative lens, offering insights into the system’s encountered challenges. Vasilyeva (2022) delved into the institutional obstacles and effects of higher education reforms in Indonesia, presenting a case study highlighting the specific hurdles faced in this context. Arokiasamy (2012) explored multicultural education’s role in higher learning institutions from a worldwide standpoint, emphasizing the advancement of values and equity among various cultural groups. Furthermore, discussions surrounding the notion of globalization in the context of internationalizing higher education reflect a prevalent theme within contemporary literature.

Comparative studies on education policies in developing regions

Tight (2019) brought out how the influence of globalization and internationalization on developing countries’ education systems becomes critical. The rising factors involve thinking about and researching higher education and informing higher education policy and practice for globalization and internalization. It is evident that although assessing trends and advancements in higher education at the global and international levels is valuable, the significance of the national and local levels remains crucial. Additionally, it is crucial to acknowledge the significance of the regional dimension, referring to the supra-national but not entirely global context. Globalization and internationalization, more prominently than most frameworks used in the examination of higher education, highlight the distinction between pragmatic and idealistic perspectives on the purpose of higher education. The concentration of policy and/or research lies on the characteristics or excellence of a specific aspect of provision or practice, with the international or global context merely serving as the backdrop. If there are deficiencies in provision or practice, the responsibility does not rest on globalization itself but rather on the actions or inaction of institutions and their employees.

The successful implementation of educational policies in developing nations is a critical aspect. Ohene (2023) delved into the investigation of technologies and cultural variables contributing to the successful implementation of educational policies in Ghana. Understanding technological advancement and cultural awareness is vital for formulating effective education policies in these regions.

Altuzarra et al. (2021) demonstrated that gender equality in education contributes to economic growth, emphasizing the importance of addressing gender inequality through education policies in developing countries.

Gan and Xiao (2021) provided a comparative analysis of the internationalization of higher education in China and the United States, shedding light on the role of policies in this development. This comparative analysis can offer valuable insights into the formulation of education policies in developing countries.

Rationale of the study

Education policies according to Miller (2016) “are the fuel on which education/schooling is run, simultaneously establishing parameters and providing direction.”

In examining the development and the structuralization of a community, it needs to bear in mind how the education policy is practiced and what the basic guidelines are being implemented in this particular society. Most of the countries are facing performativity pressures and high stakes accountability in this global contemporary market, and the policymakers and the leaders are trying to draw more comprehensive international education policy considering the MDGs and SDGs. Miller and Miller (2018) wrote that education policies “provide standardization, uniformity, and confidence to stakeholders”; they serve as “actual parameters or as shaping the parameters for actions and behaviours of individuals and groups within a system” and they “exist for creating order within an education system as well as individual schools.” So, he highlighted that education policies “establish frameworks and constraints in areas such as staffing, curriculum, safeguarding and protecting students and the welfare of the staff.”

Education policy and international development link

The relationship between economy, education, and politics is complex and interdependent. Education is considered an economic modality in the capitalist mode of production (Rizvi and Lingard, 2009), and the investment made by a country in education depends on the extent to which educated people contribute to economic growth and development (Regmi, 2022). However, policies focused on the economic value and utility of education have been criticized. Educational policies developed without having a good understanding of the national as well as international contexts will not solve multifarious challenges faced by local communities (Tiessen and Smillie, 2017). Educational policies of a country are influenced by bilateral and multilateral organizations, political contexts, and a country’s economic status.

Since international development has been denoted as a multidimensional one, policy addressing the issues of international development should also be in a multidimensional view. In terms of public policies, the program is considered successful when it achieves predetermined goals. However, this has become a debatable question while program goals were achieved but the policy work was seen as a failure and vice versa while policies are accomplished but program goals were given out. So, this research paper seeks to examine the key dimensions and considerations involved in higher education policy making, with a focus on the factors that influence policy formulation, and what is the ongoing status of educational efforts in each country and what is disturbing the implementation of the education policies.

Materials and methods

The strategies as identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion were applied in this research to be a systematic literature review (Al-Kurdi et al., 2018; El Alfy et al., 2019; Manatos et al., 2017; Phuong et al., 2015; Roth et al., 2016; Vlachopoulos and Makri, 2017). Most of the articles from Taylor and Francis and Sage Publications were selected as the online database for searching literature since it provides a comprehensive coverage of accessible educational literature (Phuong et al., 2015) and facilitates researchers in accessing full-text items based on a search using a thesaurus of key terms (Othman and Sahlawaty Halim, 2004; Vinson and Welsh, 2014). The study examines the practicalities and dichotomies of education policy and practice in Golden Triangle countries through a systematic literature review (El Alfy et al., 2019; Mertens, 2019; Newman and Gough, 2020). The study highlights the recommendations made by other researchers who encourage more reviews on under-researched topics, including internationalization and literature about higher education with a focus on Golden Traingle Area, to facilitate the development of the higher education sector in the region (Phuong et al., 2015; Tight, 2018).

The data collected was qualitatively analyzed and presented in a form of “mapping” (Newman and Gough, 2020: p. 16). The full texts of the selected publications were examined in detail to provide answers to the three research questions. The answers were gathered and presented in the critical interpretation, which depicted the scope of coverage of existing literature on higher education within Golden Triangle Area, depicting the researchers of the areas that require further studies.

The validity of systematic literature review relies on transparency in the research process. However, total transparency is an unattainable ideal, according to Hammersley (2020). To address concerns over validity, this research project presents all specific procedures of the research to be as transparent as possible for the audience to follow the research process closely and in detail, which is regarded as a requirement for systematic review by Papaioannou et al. (2010). The two researchers reflected that subjectivity influenced the objectivity of the research to the criteria for selection and screen ambiguous publications more than once if needed, especially during the literature screening process.

Research questions

A comparative multiple case study analysis will be conducted based on the ground data, for the protein concentration to cover the following research questions:

• How are education policy and practice executed in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand?

• What are the practicalities of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand?

• What are the dichotomies of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand?

Education policy and practice in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand

Education policy and practice in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand are executed through various approaches and strategies. While specific details may vary, the references provided offer insights into the broader context of education policy and practice in Southeast Asia.

Laos

In Laos, education policy and practice are influenced by the country’s economic development goals. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) provides regional support and policy guidance to achieve goals related to maternal, neonatal, and child health (Acuin et al., 2011). The Lao government had a policy of upgrading social sector development, including education after 2000s, but faced limitations due to a shortage of financial and technical resources (Phommalangsy and Honan, 2017).

The Lao government has published an official history of Laos that aims to transcend ethnic differences and connect the present with a reconstructed past (Rigg, 2009), which plays a role in shaping the country’s higher education policies and fostering a sense of national identity.

The Lao government has recognized the limitations of achieving their education goals without outside assistance and has sought support from international donors (Phommalangsy and Honan, 2017), which has helped address the shortage of resources and capacity constraints in the education sector.

The higher education policies in Laos aim to increase educational enrollment and improve access to educational and healthcare facilities. The Lao PDR government is working towards these goals by implementing various initiatives. These efforts are crucial for improving the utilization of maternal and child health services and ensuring better health outcomes for mothers and children.

Laos is taking steps to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in its higher education system to align with international standards. One aspect that Laos is focusing on is the autonomy of universities. The country recognizes the need for a “conceptual reimagining of autonomy” that goes beyond financial and legal aspects to include management and academic aspects as well (Thanosawan, 2021). By giving universities more autonomy, they can have more freedom over their curriculum, teaching methods, and research activities, which can contribute to the overall quality of education.

Laos also recognizes the benefits of studying abroad for graduate employability. Access to study abroad programs in Laos is limited, making it a unique opportunity for students. Studying abroad allows graduates to develop desirable skills and knowledge, such as communication skills, teamwork, problem-solving, and foreign language skills, which are valued by employers (Sisavath, 2021). By prioritizing student exchange programs and providing opportunities for students to study abroad, Laos aims to enhance graduate employability and ensure a smooth transition to the labor market (Sisavath, 2021).

Myanmar

Myanmar has prioritized higher education policy practice and implementation as part of its transition to a parliamentary democracy and efforts to bring about change in the country (Kandiko Howson and Lall, 2020). The government has enacted policy reforms and implemented measures to address key issues in higher education.

Higher education reforms in Myanmar have been a significant focus during the democratic government ranging from 2016 to 2020 (Esson and Wang, 2018). The education system in Myanmar has been in a weakened state, with poor physical conditions and limited human resource capacity (Hayden and Martin, 2013). Efforts are being made to recover and improve the system, although it will take time to see significant improvements. Another important aspect of higher education reform in Myanmar is the drafting of the National Education Law (NEL) in 2014 (Howson and Lall, 2019). The NEL addresses key issues such as university autonomy, the right to form unions, and the right of universities to formulate their own curriculum (Kandiko Howson and Lall, 2020). However, the law has been met with controversy, and student protests have called for further reforms (Kandiko Howson and Lall, 2020).

Equity in higher education has been a major priority in Myanmar’s reform efforts (Htut et al., 2022). The government has emphasized the importance of inclusivity and care for the environment in the development of the education sector. The country’s education reforms aim to promote sustainable and inclusive education (Ang and Wong, 2015). In Myanmar, there is a need for greater equity in achieving the Millennium Development Goals related to maternal and child mortality (Acuin et al., 2011). Efforts to address disparities and ensure equal access to education may be part of the education policy framework in Myanmar. The goal of the reforms is to promote inclusivity, sustainability, and equity in the education sector.

In Myanmar, the research capacity development in the higher education sector is hindered by significant barriers, including the control of research data by foreign entities (Glutting et al., 2022). Addressing the relationship between the central government and higher education institutions is crucial for meaningful change in Myanmar’s higher education research systems (Glutting et al., 2022). The higher education reform process in Myanmar has faced challenges, including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the military coup in 2021 and the coup has halted the reform process and resulted in societal conflict (Htut et al., 2022). The effects of these events on the higher education sector are still being assessed.

Thailand

Thailand has implemented various measures to control the quality assurance mechanism of higher education. The Office of the Higher Education Commission (OHEC) plays a crucial role in overseeing and regulating the quality of higher education institutions in Thailand (Buasuwan, 2018). The OHEC is responsible for developing policies, guidelines, and standards to ensure the quality of teaching, research, and academic services in universities.

One of the key initiatives in quality assurance is the establishment of accreditation systems. Accreditation is a process through which higher education institutions undergo evaluation to ensure that they meet certain quality standards. The Thai government has established the National Accreditation Council for Higher Education (NAC) to carry out accreditation processes and assess the quality of programs and institutions (Trisnawati and Rosiawan, 2022). Accreditation helps to ensure that universities maintain high standards of education and provide quality programs to students.

In addition to accreditation, the Thai government has also emphasized the importance of research and innovation in higher education. Universities are encouraged to engage in research activities and produce high-quality research outputs (Buasuwan, 2018). This focus on research helps to enhance the quality of teaching and learning by promoting a culture of inquiry and knowledge creation.

Furthermore, the government has implemented policies to promote collaboration between universities and industries. This collaboration aims to ensure that the skills and knowledge taught in universities are aligned with the needs of the job market (Wongwuttiwat and Lawanna, 2018). By working closely with industries, universities can develop programs that equip students with the necessary skills and competencies for employment.

To ensure the effectiveness of quality assurance mechanisms, the Thai government has also emphasized the importance of evaluation and monitoring. Regular evaluations are conducted to assess the performance of universities and identify areas for improvement (Chaiya and Ahmad, 2021). This allows for continuous quality improvement and ensures that universities are accountable for the education they provide.

Overall, Thailand has implemented a comprehensive system of quality assurance in higher education. Through accreditation, research promotion, industry collaboration, and evaluation mechanisms, the government aims to ensure that universities in Thailand maintain high standards of education and provide quality programs to students.

Practicalities of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand

Laos

Enrollment rates

Laos has been focusing on increasing educational enrollment and improving access to educational facilities. The government of Laos has recognized the importance of education and has taken steps to improve educational opportunities for its citizens. This is supported by a study conducted in rural Khammouane, Lao PDR, which found that higher educational attainment of mothers was significantly associated with a higher modified composite coverage index (CCI) score, indicating better utilization of maternal and child health services (Sakuma et al., 2019).

While trying to increase enrollment, the government tried to provide the number of health facilities and outreach sessions in integrated services. The study mentioned earlier also found that shorter distance from the health facility was significantly associated with a higher modified CCI score, suggesting that proximity to health facilities plays a role in improving access to healthcare services (Sakuma et al., 2019).

Furthermore, the government of Laos recognizes the importance of continuity of care in improving maternal, newborn, and child health. A study conducted in rural Lao PDR found that only 6.8% of mothers continued to receive all maternal, newborn, and child health (MNCH) services, indicating a need for improvement in continuity of care (Sakuma et al., 2019). The study identified several factors associated with the modified CCI score, including higher educational attainment, receiving the first antenatal care within the first trimester, longer distance from the district hospital, and discussion with husband or family members (Sakuma et al., 2019). These findings suggest that addressing these factors can contribute to improving continuity of MNCH service use.

By addressing factors such as educational attainment, timely initiation of antenatal care, distance to health facilities, and involving family members, Laos aims to improve the utilization of preventive maternal and child health services and ensure better health outcomes for its population.

Autonomy

Laos has been focusing on increasing the autonomy of universities. University governance reforms in Laos are part of broader efforts to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of public organizations, in line with the principles of New Public Management (NPM) (Christensen, 2011). These reforms aim to treat universities as autonomous entities and provide them with more freedom in financial management and decision-making matters (Christensen, 2011).

According to Christensen (2011), university governance reforms in many European countries, including Laos, have formally strengthened the autonomy of universities in various aspects such as financial management and decision-making. However, it is important to note that the actual autonomy of universities may be influenced by factors such as accountability and reporting demands, incentive and competitive funding schemes, and other measures. These factors can potentially decrease the real autonomy of universities despite formal reforms.

To analyze the living autonomy of universities, Maassen et al. (2017) propose an analytical framework that can be used for further research. This framework can help assess the extent to which universities in Laos have achieved autonomy in practice, taking into account factors such as scrutiny and the dynamic relationship between control and autonomy.

Overall, the focus on increasing the autonomy of universities in Laos is part of a broader trend in university governance reforms. While formal reforms have aimed to enhance the autonomy of universities, it is important to consider the impact of accountability measures and other factors that may affect the actual autonomy of universities. Further research using analytical frameworks can provide a deeper understanding of the living autonomy of universities in Laos and inform future reform efforts.

Employability

Laos is focusing on increasing graduate employability by considering the influence of the educational context and strengthening the capacity of professionals through training programs. The country recognizes the importance of aligning the educational structure with employability strategies to enhance graduates’ chances of securing employment (Tholen, 2014). Laos also emphasizes the importance of continuous professional development (CPD) training programs for professionals to ensure their skills and knowledge remain up-to-date and relevant. The engagement and responsibility of the Laos government and health professionals in these training programs contribute to the sustainability of CPD initiatives (Yoon et al., 2016). By investing in the professional development of graduates and professionals, Laos aims to enhance their employability and ensure they are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge demanded by the job market. Furthermore, it is important to consider the perspectives of providers in understanding the constraints in providing maternal, neonatal, and child health services (Sychareun et al., 2013). Improving the level of education and expertise of faculty members is crucial for enhancing higher education in Laos (Sakuma et al., 2019).

Myanmar

Inclusivity

Myanmar is focusing on increasing inclusivity in higher education through policy reforms, addressing equity issues, and considering local needs and cultural sensitivity. The National Education Law of 2014 addressed key issues such as university autonomy and the right to form unions, but its implementation has faced challenges, leading to student protests and subsequent revisions. Myanmar recognizes the importance of considering local needs and cultural sensitivity, advocating for an inclusive developmental agenda based on local needs and culturally sensitive approaches (Kandiko Howson and Lall, 2020). Research conducted in neighboring countries such as India highlights the importance of understanding inequalities in higher education by gender, social groups, region, and economic groups (Tilak, 2015). To address inequalities and promote inclusive strategies in higher education to achieve social justice and economic well-being, Myanmar’s recognition of the importance of inclusivity and equity in higher education is a step towards creating a more inclusive and accessible higher education system.

Sustainability

Myanmar is actively working towards increasing sustainability in higher education through various initiatives and policies (Leal Filho et al., 2018; Ramos et al., 2015). The National Education Law of 2014 and subsequent revisions have aimed to address sustainability and environmental concerns within the higher education system. Efforts to promote sustainability in higher education in Myanmar include the integration of environmental education and educational for sustainable development (ESD) into the curriculum, research, campus operations, and community outreach. Collaboration between higher education institutions is also encouraged to enhance sustainability efforts (Ramos et al., 2015). Planning plays a vital role in promoting sustainability in higher education, allowing institutions to set goals, assess performance, and implement concrete actions and measures to integrate economic development, social development, and environmental protection. Sustainable practices have been introduced to rice farmers to increase production and mitigate negative environmental impacts (Wehmeyer et al., 2022). While there is limited specific research on sustainability in higher education in Myanmar, studies from other countries emphasize the importance of engaging students in socio-scientific disputes and challenging value and knowledge claims (Wals and Jickling, 2002). By promoting sustainability in higher education, Myanmar aims to prepare graduates who can contribute to a sustainable future and address environmental challenges.

Equity

Myanmar is committed to promoting equity in higher education through policy reforms, addressing barriers to access, and promoting inclusivity (Fadhil & Sabic-El-Rayess, 2021). The National Education Law of 2014 and subsequent revisions emphasize equity as a major priority in higher education reform (Htut et al., 2022). The country aims to provide equal opportunities for all students, regardless of their background or social status (Jehan et al., 2021). Efforts are made to address barriers to access and ensure equitable access to education. Myanmar also aims to foster first-generation participation in higher education by building aspirations, confidence, and educational capabilities (Marginson, 2011). The integration of environmental education and education for sustainable development into the curriculum also promotes inclusivity and sustainability. However, challenges remain, including the political and social context and equity barriers within educational institutions. Strengthening research capacity and fostering partnerships can further support equity goals in higher education in Myanmar.

Thailand

In Thailand, the practicalities of higher education include the restructuring of the higher education system, such as privatization, corporatization of public universities, and the implementation of student fees. The country is also leveraging information and communications technology (ICT) to address the challenges faced by higher education systems in Southeast Asia (Hong and Songan, 2011). Thailand has a well-established education system and has implemented various policies and practices to improve the quality of education. The country has made significant progress in reducing maternal and child mortality rates (Acuin et al., 2011). This indicates that Thailand’s education policy and practice may prioritize the well-being and health of students, aligning with broader health-related goals.

Privatization

Thailand has focused on privatization in higher education to enhance the quality and accessibility of education (Fuchs, 2021). The growth of private higher education programs and institutions has provided diverse educational opportunities and increased access to higher education. The adoption of innovative pedagogical approaches has been suggested as a way to enhance active learning and adapt to the changing educational landscape. The three-tiered system of undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate degrees, following the model of developed Western economies, is prevalent in Thailand’s higher education system. Studies have examined the rates of return to schooling in Thailand (Tangtipongkul, 2015), indicating that vocational education attainment may provide higher private rates of return than general education. However, the potential impact on social equity and the need to ensure quality and accountability in private higher education institutions are important factors to consider (Marginson, 2011). Additionally, the role of the government in regulating and supporting private higher education is crucial to maintain standards and protect the interests of students.

Accreditation

Thailand ensures the accreditation of higher education through various mechanisms and processes. The Office of the Higher Education Commission (OHEC) plays a significant role in overseeing and regulating the quality of higher education institutions in Thailand (Mongkhonvanit, 2017). The National Accreditation Council for Higher Education (NAC) is responsible for carrying out accreditation processes and assessing the quality of programs and institutions (Salto, 2022). The accreditation process involves comprehensive evaluation, self-assessment, and external review (Absor, 2022). Continuous improvement and collaboration between stakeholders are also emphasized to maintain and enhance the quality of education in Thailand (Mongkhonvanit, 2017).

Thailand ensures the accreditation of higher education through the involvement of regulatory bodies like the OHEC and the NAC. The accreditation process involves comprehensive evaluation, self-assessment, and external review. Continuous improvement and collaboration between stakeholders are also emphasized to maintain and enhance the quality of education in Thailand.

Research and innovation

Thailand employs various strategies to ensure research and innovation in higher education, including establishment of research funding programs such as the National Research Council of Thailand and the Thailand Research Fund (Wongwuttiwat and Lawanna, 2018), collaboration between universities and industries to drive innovation and address real-world challenges, promotion of the development of research infrastructure and facilities in universities (Buasuwan, 2018), dissemination of research findings through academic conferences, seminars, and publications (Qin, 2022), fostering a culture of research and innovation among faculty and students through capacity building, research training, and professional development initiatives. These strategies aim to advance knowledge, drive economic growth, and address societal challenges.

International collaboration

According to Altbach and Knight (2007), Thailand promotes international collaboration in higher education through various strategies and initiatives, including establishment of research funding programs such as the National Research Council of Thailand and the Thailand Research Fund (Intarakamhang and Tuntivivat, 2021), collaboration between universities and industries to drive innovation and address real-world challenges, promotion of the development of research infrastructure and facilities in universities, encouragement of international mobility of academic staff and students through strategic policies, dissemination of research findings through academic conferences, seminars, and publications, and fostering university–industry linkages to enhance research and innovation. These efforts aim to foster knowledge exchange, enhance research and innovation, and promote the internationalization of higher education in Thailand.

Dichotomies of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand

The dichotomies of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand can be understood through the lens of globalization and internationalization. Globalization refers to the economic and academic trends that are part of the reality of the 21st century, while internationalization encompasses the policies and practices undertaken by academic systems and institutions to cope with the global academic environment (Altbach and Knight, 2007).

Laos

Challenges and barriers to implementing educational enrollment and improving access to educational facilities in Laos include distance and geographical accessibility, limited awareness and knowledge, socio-cultural attitudes and norms, inadequate infrastructure and resources, socio-economic disparities, and quality of education (Rigg, 2009). To address these challenges, a multi-faceted approach is necessary, including improving transportation infrastructure, raising awareness about the importance of education, promoting gender equality, providing targeted support for disadvantaged students, investing in educational infrastructure, teacher training, curriculum development, and fostering collaboration between the government, educational institutions, and communities (Chard et al., 2019; Keokenchanh et al., 2021; Phommachanh et al., 2019; Sakuma et al., 2019; Thongmixay et al., 2019). Challenges to implementing the autonomy of universities in Laos include state interference and control, lack of a comprehensive legal basis, balancing autonomy and accountability, limited research and experience, and the assessment of autonomy (Cuong et al., 2020; Górska et al., 2022; Hoa, 2022; Holmes, 2021; Marginson, 2011). To overcome these challenges, careful policy considerations, a supportive legal framework, and drawing on international experiences and best practices are necessary. Challenges to implementing graduate employability in Laos include employer engagement and relevance of the curriculum, confidence and perception, skills mismatch, employer perception, and regional and specialty variations (Beaumont et al., 2016; Mgaiwa, 2021; Miller et al., 1998; Sun, 2011; Yusof et al., 2010). To address these challenges, a comprehensive approach involving collaboration between educational institutions, employers, and policymakers is necessary.

Myanmar

In Myanmar, the traditional Confucian model of higher education and the influence of globalization create a dichotomy (Marginson, 2011). Challenges and concerns in implementing inclusivity, sustainability, and equity in higher education in Myanmar include socio-economic and ethnic, gender, and geographic disparities (Htut et al., 2022), limited research capacity (Glutting et al., 2022), lack of awareness and understanding, administrative and budgetary constraints (De Sá Peixoto et al., 2023), and cultural and value-dependent nature of sustainability (Wolff et al., 2017). Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that involves policy reforms, resource allocation, and targeted support for marginalized groups. Collaboration between the government, higher education institutions, and civil society organizations is crucial for promoting equity and inclusivity in higher education in Myanmar. Additionally, research data on Myanmar remains largely controlled by foreign entities, and addressing the relationship between the central government and higher education institutions is critical for achieving meaningful change in Myanmar’s higher education research systems.

Thailand

In Thailand, dichotomies exist in higher education, such as the tension between traditional values and globalization, the balance between practical skills and theoretical knowledge, and the shift towards market-oriented approaches. In Thailand, dichotomies exist in quality assurance and accreditation (Altbach and Knight, 2007; Knight, 2004; Marginson, 2006; Salto, 2022), such as complexity and confusion, institutional versus national/sector level, and competition and elite institutions. Challenges in implementing research and innovation in Thailand include limited understanding and awareness, resource constraints, and cultural and mindset barriers (Buasuwan, 2018; Kuchynska et al., 2022). Challenges in implementing collaboration in higher education in Thailand include limited understanding and awareness (Lailiyah et al., 2021), cultural and mindset barriers (Buasuwan, 2018), and resource constraints (Intarakamhang and Tuntivivat, 2021).

Policy implications

It is important to note that further research and analysis of specific education policies and practices in each country would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the topic. The factors affecting the higher education quality and capacity of Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand include the need for better quality in Laos, barriers to research capacity development in Myanmar, the policy process of quality assurance in Thailand, and the initiatives for internationalization in all three countries (Cheung, 2021). Addressing these factors and promoting collaboration among stakeholders can contribute to the improvement of higher education in these countries.

The complex impacts of post-colonialism on education policy in Laos need careful scrutiny from various angles. Langill and Willis (2019) pointed out that there is a strong emphasis on the essential reciprocity between educational migrants and communities which is crucial for continuing education and the acquisition of socio-cultural knowledge and resources in Laos. This underscores the significance of comprehending the socio-cultural backdrop and engaging the community in shaping education policies in post-colonial Laos.

Phommalangsy and Honan (2017) analyzed donor engagement with education policy development in Lao PDR within 1991 to 2000, and this sheds light on the influence of external actors including donors on shaping education policies in post-colonial Laos, emphasizing the need to critically assess the impact of external involvement on the country’s education system. In addition, McCormick (2012) provided a critical discourse analysis of quality and normative transfer through Cambodia and Laos, offering a comparative perspective on education policies in aid-receiving countries which provides insights into the normative influences on education policies in post-colonial Laos.

Furthermore, one of the main challenges in higher education in Laos is the need for better quality (Galafa and Ngoimanee, 2021). The qualification levels of academics in the country are poor by international standards (Galafa and Ngoimanee, 2021). This suggests that improving the qualifications and expertise of faculty members could enhance the quality of higher education in Laos. Despite being one of the poorest countries in the region, Laos has made steady progress in expanding access to schooling and achieving nearly universal primary education in the last decade. Phommalangsy and Honan (2017) emphasizes the power dynamics between donors and the government, with donors often imposing their policy agendas on Laos. It needs to strengthen the government’s capacity to resist or mediate donor policy agendas and ensure that education policies align with national priorities and needs.

Lavankura (2013) highlighted the need for universities to establish international programs to generate fee income and adapt to the imperatives of liberalization, free trade, and privatization in the higher education sector of Thailand. In this study, it also recommends promoting international programs and encouraging universities to engage in global partnerships to attract international students and generate revenue. Policy recommendations for Thailand could focus on enhancing the quality of international programs, including improving English language capabilities and ensuring that students have a positive educational experience.

The post-colonial implications on education policy in Myanmar are also complex and multifarious. Lall and South (2013) offered perspectives on the power dynamics of linguistic and educational regulations in Myanmar amid its turbulent shift, enlightening the complex relationship between language and educational strategies in the aftermath of colonization. Wong (2019) delved into the beneficial outcomes of acknowledging minority languages within Myanmar’s educational policies, emphasizing how these language strategies contribute to promoting social cohesion and peace-building efforts in the society.

Higher education in Myanmar for international development should prioritize addressing financial risks from ill health, promoting an inclusive developmental agenda in higher education reform, and investing in workplace training to enhance labor market outcomes. These recommendations are supported by evidence on the importance of accessible healthcare, cultural sensitivity, and skill development for sustainable development in Myanmar.

The repercussions of post-colonialism on Thailand’s educational policies are diverse and have undergone extensive examination. Existing literature provides crucial perspectives on the disparities, cultural suppression, and dominance of certain knowledge systems through the educational system in Southern Thailand (Pherali, 2021). Moreover, studies focusing on educational leadership within conflict-affected areas, notably in the unsettled southern provinces of Thailand, offer valuable insights transferable to post-conflict environments, such as Somalia (Schwartz and Aden, 2017). Additionally, the importance of girls’ education within post-colonial educational policies and the influence of traditional beliefs as hindrances to girls’ access to schooling have been emphasized (Vavrus, 2002).

Furthermore, there has been an exploration of pedagogical implications related to the creation of English teaching materials aimed at enhancing primary-level English education in Thailand. This exploration underscores the significance of English lessons rooted in the local context to promote Thai knowledge and preserve the national identity (Kanoksilapatham, 2018). Additionally, the examination of language and education policies concerning indigenous minority groups in post-colonial nations has shed light on the difficulties and possibilities present in diverse multicultural and multilingual educational environments (Renganathan and Kral, 2018). Moreover, the complexities inherent in determining the status of vernacular languages or mother tongues in comparison to English within society and education in post-colonial communities have been discussed. This discussion underscores the intricate nature of language policy in such contexts (Canagarajah, 2005).

Buasuwan (2018) discussed the role of Thai higher education in promoting a creative society, aligning with the goals of Thailand 4.0. It emphasizes the need for development of learning networks, public–private-community engagement, new mind-set and skill set of lecturers and students, and new technology. Thailand should involve fostering creativity and innovation in higher education through these strategies and promoting collaboration between universities, industry, and the community.

In summary, policy recommendations for higher education policy in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand for international development could include promoting international programs and partnerships, strengthening the government’s capacity to resist external policy agendas, enhancing the quality of international programs, fostering creativity and innovation, and promoting collaboration between universities, industry, and the community.

Overall, the practicalities of higher education in Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand are influenced by various factors such as the emphasis on practical work in education, socioeconomic inequalities, cultural beliefs, regional collaborations, and the use of ICT. These practicalities shape the educational landscape and require attention and interventions to ensure equitable access to quality education. While practical work is not given enough emphasis in schools, efforts are being made to develop experimental competence among students. This reflects a tension between the practical skills needed for real-world applications and the theoretical foundations necessary for a well-rounded education. In Table 1, it can be seen how to address the practicalities and the dichotomies found by this study to be able to internationalize based on the localized needs of each country (Table 1).

Autonomy		Sustainability		Accreditation
Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies
-Financial management and decision-making	-State interference	-Integration of environmental education	-Cultural and value-dependent nature of sustainability	-Overseeing and regulating the quality of higher education institutions	-Complexity and confusion, institutional vs. national/sector level, and competition and elite institutions
-Accountability	-Limited research and experience	-Collaboration between higher education institutions	-Administrative and budgetary constraints	- Comprehensive evaluation, self-assessment, and external review
-Accountability	-Balancing autonomy and control	-Collaboration between higher education institutions	-Administrative and budgetary constraints

Employability		Equity		Research and innovation
Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies
-Training programs	-Employer engagement	-Equal opportunities	-Limited research capacity	-Establishment of research funding programs	-Limited understanding and awareness, resource constraints, and cultural and mindset barriers
-Securing employment	-Relevance of curriculum	-Access and ensure equitable access	-Lack of awareness and understanding	-Collaboration between universities and industries
	-Skills mismatch			-Research culture and training
	-Regional and specialty variation			-Research culture and training

Table 1.

Summary of the practicalities and the dichotomies of higher education sector in Golden Triangle Countries.

Laos		Myanmar		Thailand
Enrollment rates		Inclusivity		Privatization
Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies	Practicalities	Dichotomies
-Health services	-Geographical accessibility	-Local needs and cultural sensitivity	-Socio-economic and ethnic, gender, and geographic disparities	-Diverse educational opportunities	-The tension between traditional values and globalization
- Outreached sessions	-Limited awareness and knowledge	-Social justice and economic well-being		-Adoption of innovative pedagogical approaches	- The balance between practical skills and theoretical knowledge
	-Norms				- The shift towards market-oriented approaches
	-Resources				- The shift towards market-oriented approaches

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Shine Wanna Aung

Than Than Aye

Shine Wanna Aung is an independent consultant and researcher, and his research interest covers policy issues in public financial management, community development and especially co-creation of public values and digital governance. Previously, his research works included creative bureaucracies in digital reform, how user centred design can promote policy issues, analysis of education, skill and employment and humanitarian aids in conflict-affected countries. Currently, Shine is focusing education policy and international development issues especially in Southeast Asia in comparison with other developed countries along with digital related research. Shine received Master of Public Administration in Innovation, Public Policy, and Public Value from University College London (UCL) and also Master of Public Policy from Korea Development Institute (KDI) School of Public Policy and Management. With an unwavering commitment to advancing knowledge and driving positive change, Shine Wanna Aung stands as a dedicated professional at the intersection of academia and policy research.

Than Than Aye holds a Ph.D. from the School of Education at Central China Normal University in Wuhan, People's Republic of China, with a specialization in educational economics and management. Her research focuses on education policy and the reform of higher education institutions, demonstrating a strong commitment to exploring the factors influencing the implementation of educational policies. In her doctoral dissertation, she delves into the realm of education reform in Myanmar, also in this article, offering a comprehensive exploration of the practicalities and dichotomies of education across three different countries. Currently, Than Than Aye is scrutinizing the policy issues in education reform encountering by the developing countries for international development, and implementing the education in emergencies projects for humanatarian aids.

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