Dating Violence Perspectives of Latino College Students: Considerations for Violence Prevention Programming

Abstract

This study sought to explore dating violence perceptions from Latino students in a college setting with the goal of enhancing knowledge for developing successful culturally tailored preventive interventions that decrease Latino college student dropout and enhance persistence. Focus groups including 35 college students attending a Hispanic Serving Institution were conducted. Conventional qualitative analysis showed Latino college students prefer dating violence prevention programming that places a focus on interdependent self-construals emphasizing relationships, which is consistent with their collectivistic values. Moreover, participants addressed unique cultural characteristics of Latinos that should be considered in any dating violence prevention program targeting this population.

Keywords

dating violence Latino college students interdependent self-construals collectivism

As the largest and fastest growing ethnic group in the United States (Grieco, 2010), Latino millennials are enrolling in colleges at high rates (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016; Patten, 2016). However, studies show that Latinos have low rates of college persistence (Murphy & Murphy, 2018). Early studies of college student persistence suggest that academic and social engagement are essential to prevent student dropout (Astin, 1993; Tinto, 1993). Rumberger and Lim (2008) propose that academic performance is linked to college student engagement, which is, in turn, defined by social factors, academic performance, psychological factors, and background factors. Social factors have been shown to significantly impact the persistence of Latino students in college (Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2015; Gonzales, Brammer, & Sawilowsky, 2015), and some research suggests social engagement is more important and predictive of persistence for Latinos than for non-Latinos (Gonzales et al., 2015). However, student engagement can be disrupted by dating violence (DV) during the college years (Mengo & Black, 2016). DV—physical, sexual, and psychological abuse between partners in an intimate relationship (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2017)—is more prevalent among college students aged 18 to 25 years than among any other age-group (Breiding et al., 2014). Mengo and Black (2016) found that experiencing any type of DV in college is associated with significant declines in grade point average and an increased likelihood of dropping out. Research studies show that DV is associated with serious mental health consequences including depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, suicidal ideation and attempts, and substance dependence (Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). These mental health concerns may impair a college student’s ability to concentrate, organize, and recall information and decrease a student’s ability to engage with others due to shame, guilt, or embarrassment (Jordan, Combs, & Smith, 2014). The severity of these symptoms may be compounded for Latinos because they are less likely to utilize counseling services offered by universities (Kearney, Draper, & Baron, 2005) and more likely to experience heightened stress responses due to the isolation that often accompanies DV, which is experienced as incongruent with their cultural values and identity (Campos & Kim, 2017). High prevalence rates of DV for Latinos in college is concerning because DV can be prevented by providing culturally tailored knowledge and skills training to individuals about healthy relationships and nonviolent problem-solving congruent with the socioecological model (CDC, 2015, 2017). Nonetheless, to date, the literature regarding DV among Latinos has focused on older adults in community settings or teenagers in middle and high school (Cummings, Gonzalez-Guarda, & Sandoval, 2013). The demographic shift of more Latinos attending college and the lack of studies related to DV among college-attending Latinos emphasize the need for research on their perspectives and preferences regarding DV prevention.

Literature Review

The available research on DV and academic and student engagement suggests that experiencing DV disrupts social connections and lowers academic engagement due to the psychological impact of trauma symptomology (Jordan et al., 2014). Further, identifying DV as the reason a student’s academic performance and social engagement decrease requires insight on the part of the student (Jordan et al., 2014). Often, students may attribute their dropout from college to mental illness without necessarily linking it to DV and since many students do not report DV to the police or campus disciplinary boards, the dropout is assumed to be related to other factors (Jordan et al., 2014). A study by Griffin and Read (2012) found that students experiencing sexual assault during their first college year were more likely to drop out in their second year. Similarly, Mengo and Black (2016) found a higher dropout rate among students who experienced sexual violence victimization compared with the dropout rate for the general student population. College women who experienced physical victimization by a partner were also found to be more likely to drop out of college over a 4-year period (Smith, White, & Holland, 2003), and research exploring the impact of psychological aggression by a partner found that it negatively impacted academic achievement (LeBlanc, Barling, & Turner, 2014). In addition, Banyard et al. (2017) reported that any kind of victimization by a partner (physical, sexual, and psychological) was significantly associated with lower scores on student engagement measures associated with persistence, such as academic efficacy, institutional commitment, and scholastic conscientiousness.

The evidence accumulated to date suggests DV victimization is linked to cognitive impairment resulting from traumatic stress (Jordan et al., 2014). An individual experiencing traumatic stress is likely to experience involuntary intrusive memories that impair the ability to focus, assimilate, analyze, and remember novel information; in fact, depending on the length, frequency, and severity of these symptoms an individual may be diagnosed with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Van der Kolk, McFarlane, & Weisaeth, 2007). Another common sequela of experiencing traumatic events is related to autonomic nervous system hyperarousal, which may be expressed as intense social anxiety and depressed mood (Van der Kolk et al., 2007). It follows that a student experiencing these symptoms as a result of DV is less likely to attend and concentrate in class, recall important information about assignments, and feel comfortable in social settings. Thus, the available research suggests experiencing DV in college can lead to academic withdrawal.

Estimates suggest that Latino women aged 18 to 24 years have a 29.7% lifetime prevalence of physical violence, a 6.2% lifetime prevalence of rape, and a 6.8% lifetime prevalence of stalking (Breiding et al., 2014). Available estimates for Latino men show their lifetime prevalence of victimization is 5.1% for stalking and 26.5% for physical violence (Black et al., 2011). Latinos lag behind other ethnic groups in retention and graduation rates (Fry, 2011). Recent data show only 22% of Latino adults (25 years and older) earned an associate degree or higher compared with 39% of all adults in the United States (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016). Research suggests the low persistence rates among Latinos are linked to systematic disadvantages including first-generation college student status, lower socioeconomic status, and higher rates of trauma symptomology associated with discrimination (Alfaro, Umaña-Taylor, Gonzales-Backen, Bamaca, & Zeiders, 2009). Research specific to Latino college students’ persistence found that establishing a sense of community and connectedness to other students of similar cultural backgrounds is essential to their persistence (Murphy & Murphy, 2018) because it parallels the sense of connectedness experienced in their communities of origin (Gonzales et al., 2015). This research suggests that Latinos have a higher risk of dropping out of college; thus, experiencing DV would only compound their risk of dropout.

DV in the College Population

There are advances in DV prevention research at the high school level (Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). For example, the Safe Dates curriculum for high school students reduced DV by targeting social norms regarding violence, gender stereotyping, and training in conflict management skills delivered through a 10-session curriculum, a theater production, and a poster contest (Foshee et al., 1998). However, there is a need to bridge these prevention efforts as individuals transition from high school to college because while dating in the teenage years is primarily focused on exploration, dating in the college years is more focused on commitment (Arnett, 2000). Yet a significant risk factor for DV among college students is a misunderstanding of what constitutes a healthy relationship due to elements such as tolerant DV attitudes, endorsement of traditional gender roles, and a lack of skills to cope with anger and communicate effectively with a partner (Hays, Michel, Bayne, Colburn, & Myers, 2015). Despite the negative outcomes associated with DV, many college students who experience DV report an intention to remain in those abusive relationships (Miller, 2011). Moreover, while bystander intervention programs exist to prevent sexual victimization (Banyard, 2014), fewer programs include initiatives to prevent all forms of DV on universities and none target Latino college students specifically (Banyard, 2013; Cornelius & Resseguie, 2007). As a result, more research is needed to understand the dynamics of DV within Latinos in college.

DV Among Latino College Students

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of Latinos enrolled in college increased from 4% to 17% between the years of 1976 and 2014 (Musu-Gillette et al., 2016). This enrollment growth coincides with research showing that Latina college students are at higher risk of experiencing aggravated assault and rape or sexual assault compared with their non-Latina counterparts (Hart & Rennison, 2011). Moreover, according to one study of Latinas attending college in the South Texas region, at least 43% experienced DV in the past year. Of concern is the realization that only 25% of these Latinas who experienced DV saw physical violence as a problem in their relationships (Coker, Sanderson, Cantu, Huerta, & Fadden, 2008). This finding further suggests that understanding perceptions regarding DV is of foremost importance to prevent DV among Latino college students.

Factors Impacting DV Prevention Programming Among Latinos

The socioecological framework proposes that DV is the result of a complex interplay between individual, cultural, and environmental factors (CDC, 2015). Adopting this framework to study DV among Latinos facilitates the development of culturally informed prevention strategies and treatments for this minority group (Cummings et al., 2013). Thus, societal factors that may influence DV among Latinos and should be assessed include acculturation, machismo and marianismo, and collectivism (Cummings et al., 2013).

Acculturation is the process through which individuals from one culture come to another (Berry, 2003). Acculturation can impact relationship dynamics such as family functioning and gender roles, especially if one partner endorses Anglo values (Grzywacz, Rao, Gentry, Marin, & Arcury, 2009). Accordingly, the risk of DV increases for more acculturated women with partners who were less acculturated and endorsed more traditional gender roles (Soriano, Rivera, Williams, Daley, & Reznik, 2004). Machismo and marianismo are Latino traditional gender roles providing prescriptions for appropriate behavior based on an individual’s gender (Vandello & Cohen, 2003). Machismo is a traditional masculine gender role prescription among Latinos requiring men to be tough, aggressive, and controlling (Vandello & Cohen, 2003); however, this gender role also includes values like family protection, wisdom, spirituality, and dignity (Arciniega, Tovar-Blank, Tracey, & Anderson, 2008). Endorsement of traditional masculine norms has been associated with a higher likelihood to engage in aggressive behavior and, specific to Latino men, a heightened sense of male dominance is a risk factor for perpetrating partner violence (Basile, Hall, & Walters, 2013). On the other hand, marianismo prescribes that women should reflect the attributes of the Virgin Mary: virtue, humility, spirituality, self-sacrifice, and family dedication (Castillo, Perez, Castillo, & Ghosheh, 2010). This gender role may make women vulnerable to partner violence and may keep them in abusive relationships because of the pressure to self-sacrifice to maintain the family intact (Vandello & Cohen, 2003).

Latinos tend to be collectivistic, which means they perceive their self as interdependent and intertwined with the selves of others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The interdependent self-construal is one based on connectedness and of

seeing oneself as part of an encompassing social relationship and recognizing that one’s behavior is determined, contingent on, and, to a large extent, organized by what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feelings, and actions, of others in the relationship. (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, p. 227)

In other words, an interdependent construal of the self is focused on connection through fitting in, meeting expectations of others and social norms rather than a person’s internal wishes (Campos & Kim, 2017). Since smooth interpersonal relationships promote the well-being of the collective, there is an emphasis on maintaining harmony among individuals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Thus, humility, deference, and self-effacement are common social norms in collectivistic cultures, implying that individuals must understand others and draw meaning from their social context and interactions (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Among Latinos, convivial collectivism is expressed by fostering and maintaining interdependent relationships through active and frequent expressions of positive emotions, having frequent gatherings, and engaging in personalismo, which is the Latino cultural expectation emphasizing intimate and caring interactions between individuals (Campos & Kim, 2017). This type of collectivism makes Latinos more reliant on close relationships with family and friends to obtain support and plays a significant role in mental health outcomes (Campos, Rojas Perez, & Guardino, 2016; Cheng & Mallinckrodt, 2015).

Overall, there is a dearth of studies addressing an integrated approach to violence prevention in college campuses (Banyard, 2013, 2014). This gap in the literature is greater pertaining to knowledge of the DV prevention preferences of Latino college students (Cummings et al., 2013), yet advancing knowledge and understanding of their perspectives regarding prevention of DV would have a meaningful impact in their college persistence. Thus, the purpose of this study is to obtain information about Latino college students’ perspectives and preferences for DV prevention at a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI).

Method

Participants and Setting

The study included a purposeful sample of 35 undergraduate students. Since the study focuses on overall Latino college students’ perceptions and preferences regarding DV programming, the criteria for selecting participants included: (a) being older than 18 years old and (b) enrollment in at least one undergraduate course. The participants’ mean age was 22.5 (SD = 2.7), and the median annual household income reported was $55,000 (SD = 41,435). Other demographic characteristics of study participants are provided in Table 1.

Table 1.

Sample Demographic Characteristics.

	N	%
College classification
Senior	14	40
Junior	9	26
Sophomore	6	17
Freshmen	6	17
Gender
Men	11	31
Women	24	69
Sexual orientation
Heterosexual	31	89
Homosexual	1	3
Bisexual	2	6
Birthplace
United States	31	89
Mexico	4	11

Procedure

Upon obtaining approval from our university’s institutional review board, we began recruitment by announcing the study in undergraduate classes. Guidelines for focus group (FG) research suggest the ideal size for obtaining in-depth information about an issue is five to eight participants to allow space for everyone to share their views (Krueger & Casey, 2015). Thus, we decided to conduct seven FGs with five participants in each group. During each FG session, the group facilitators established ground rules for discussion, the importance of confidentiality, and expressing opinions in a respectful way. Participants completed a paper-and-pencil demographic survey prior to beginning the FG, which asked information about their age, country of origin, race or ethnicity, year in college, and household income. The FG protocol included 11 open-ended questions addressing the participants’ perceptions and preferences regarding DV prevention strategies (see Appendix). Questions for the FGs were created after reviewing the literature relevant to DV and Latino sociocultural characteristics. When relevant, FG leaders asked probing questions specific to the participant’s comments and referred to earlier comments from participants to identify and clarify incongruences. FGs were led by seven graduate students, were digitally recorded, and lasted between 60 and 90 minutes. Participants received extra credit in undergraduate courses for study participation.

Data Analysis

Analysis of data was carried out using a conventional qualitative content analysis based on a constructivist epistemology. Constructivism postulates that knowledge and meaning are constructed by each individual rather than existing independently of human beings (Creswell, 2007). Conventional qualitative content analysis is recommended when the aim of a study is to describe a phenomenon where limited information or theoretical perspectives are available (Miles & Huberman, 1994). This approach to data analysis is characterized by the development of inductive categories and themes based on participants’ narratives; thus, it requires researchers to bracket all preconceived knowledge to allow categories to emerge from the data (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). The authors conducted a 2-day training for FG leaders about the research project and engaged the team in bracketing by openly articulating our thoughts regarding DV. These reflections resulted in acknowledging assumptions made through every step of the data analysis and during consensus meetings. Each graduate student transcribed their FG recordings and used Atlas.ti 7 for data analysis. All authors and FG leaders were involved in the coding of the data by following these steps: (a) Authors and FG leaders read all the FG transcripts to get perspective of the whole study, (b) groups of two FG leaders were assigned to read one FG transcript word by word to find meaning units within segments of text that highlight key thoughts or ideas, thereby creating codes (Creswell, 2007), (c) once codes were created for all transcripts, the third and fourth authors sorted them into categories depicting the links and relationships between codes resulting in the creation of meaningful clusters, (d) the first and second author then independently verified the coding and categories created, (e) all authors and FG leaders then identified themes that emerged from the category clusters by examining differences, similarities, and linkages to summarize findings from the study (Creswell, 2007).

All FG leaders and authors involved in the data analysis participated in consensus meetings to reach agreement on themes and categories. During consensus meetings, all authors engaged in discussion of categories and themes, going back to the transcripts to verify participants’ narratives, and revising themes to reflect the views expressed by study participants. During these meetings, authors and FG leaders brought forth previously articulated DV preconceptions, which led to reviewing our understandings when new insights came to light (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Results reporting include quotes from the transcripts to provide thematic descriptions using the participants’ own words (Creswell, 2007). All names used in the manuscript are pseudonyms.

Given limited contact with participants, triangulation by member verification of findings was not possible. However, trustworthiness was established through credibility, dependability, and confirmability. The researchers established credibility—ensuring that the findings are congruent with reality—by (a) adopting well-established methods of data collection, such as using semistructured interviews based on previous studies, (b) acquiring familiarity with the culture of the college students’ life that is reflected on the questions asked, (c) encouraging participants at the outset to be frank in their answers, and (d) asking probing and iterative questions, where the interviewer returns to previous answers given by participants to highlight contradictions in the narrative (Creswell, 2007). Dependability was established by reporting in detail the processes of the study, enabling future researchers to repeat the work (Creswell, 2007). Confirmability was established by staying close to the experiences of the participants throughout the project and articulating preconceptions held by the research team and bringing them up at each stage of data analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

Major Themes

Latino collectivistic culture was evident in participants’ narratives emphasizing their preference of active involvement in and maintenance of relationships to prevent DV. Two major themes emerged from the narratives: (a) the importance of interdependent self-construals and (b) a narrative related to their preferred elements of DV prevention programming (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Major Themes, Categories, and Subcategories Describing the DV Prevention Perspectives of Latino College Students.

Major themes	Categories	Subcategories
The importance of interdependent self-construals	Distinguishing types of relationships	Characteristics of healthy relationships Characteristics of abusive relationships Maintaining harmonious relationships Conflict management skills
	Consequences of staying in abusive relationships
	Factors influencing relationships	Family Culture Media
Preferred elements of DV prevention programming	Collectivistic orientation	Include information on community resources providing help Foster warm and caring relationships with other students
	Diverse programming	Include participants from diverse backgrounds Include first-person experiences to programming Use variety of activities and media to deliver curriculum

DV = dating violence.

The importance of interdependent self-construals

As the Latino culture is collectivistic and self-construals tend to be interdependent, Latinos are motivated to be part of multiple interpersonal relationships and to change behavior in response to what others need (Campos & Kim, 2017). Given the importance of this interpersonal flexibility, the categories and subcategories within this theme were tied to understanding and managing relationships. Specifically, three categories emerged within this theme: (a) distinguishing types of relationships, (b) consequences of staying in abusive relationships, and (c) factors influencing romantic relationships.

Distinguishing types of relationships

Participants expressed a desire to learn about characteristics of relationships so they may better adapt, understand, and manage them. Four subcategories emerged from the data: (a) characteristics of healthy relationships, (b) characteristics of abusive relationships, (c) maintaining harmonious relationships, and (d) conflict management skills.

Characteristics of healthy relationships

Participants indicated that there are relatively few sources of information about what specific behaviors characterize healthy relationships. Jorge (male, 20 years old) expressed this need as follows,

There is a lot of pamphlets that tell you what is not a healthy relationship. But there is a lack of pamphlets that tell you what is a healthy relationship. They will tell you ‘this is wrong’, but they don’t tell you what is the correct thing.

On the other hand, Alicia (female, 25 years old) expressed “sometimes people might be in unhealthy relationships and not see it. […] . It happens over and over again and they just stay because they don’t know it’s wrong.” In general, participants expressed interest in learning to identify the attributes of healthy relationships as a first step in preventing DV among college students. This finding is consistent with Hays et al. (2015), who found that one of the major reasons why students do not seek out help when they are in abusive relationships is the lack of insight about what constitutes a healthy relationship.

Characteristics of abusive relationships

Participants expressed a perceived need to learn about the signs of an abusive relationship as a way to prevent entering into violent or abusive marriages later on. Specifically, Jorge (male, 20 years old) expressed “it would be a good opportunity [to prevent unhealthy relationships] because we are in the age […] where you get married. So, before we get into problems a little bit of background information would help.” Participants also believed it to be important to learn about all types of abusive relationships. For instance, Mary (female, 20 years old) said,

I feel like also people need to understand that an unhealthy relationship is not just like them hitting you or anything like that. It’s them not making you feel [good], […] insulting you, or being [possessive] because a lot of people especially in our generation think it’s okay for them to be possessive, and that’s not healthy.

Other participants believed it is important to identify controlling behaviors, specifically alluding to partners’ efforts to isolate and manipulate their significant other. For example, Ariana (female, 20 years old) explained a lack of trust is expressed “When they tell you ‘you can’t see your family,’ I think that’s one of the biggest signs. […] Like for someone to take you away and get you isolated, that’s a dangerous sign.” Another participant, Silvia (female, 22 years old) shared a personal experience regarding controlling behaviors,

I’d be working or something, or I forgot to say I am going to work and have like 100 calls when I like got out of work. But I feel like people need to know that’s not normal because I thought it was fine for him to ask me what was I doing all the time and to be calling when I was with my friends and for him to say ‘prove that you are with your friends’ and like not even my mom [asked me that], you know. We think it’s okay because they care, but it’s not.

Many participants reflected on the difficulty associated with realizing they are in an unhealthy relationship. Paola (female, 27 years old), echoed this idea and added,

My roommate was in an unhealthy relationship and she would always make excuses for him. Like ‘oh it’s because he’s scared’ or ‘he’s nervous that I’m going to break up.’ You have to […] realize that what he’s doing is being controlling.

Participants’ suggestion of including information by support services personnel (e.g., advising and mentoring center and student counseling) that leads to identification of abusive relationships is important, especially in light of their recognition that it may sometimes be difficult to identify certain relationship patterns. The reliance on social norms and contextual cues to shape relational behaviors (Markus & Kitayama, 1991) may make it difficult to distinguish healthy from unhealthy relationships. Hence, knowledge about types of relationships could potentially provide a different set of social norms concerning dating and prevent DV.

Maintaining harmonious relationships

In collectivistic cultures, maintaining harmonious relationships requires the ability to communicate not only through explicit messages but also through contextual cues (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis & Brown, 1995). It follows that these Latino participants expressed a desire to learn effective communication to apply with partners, family members, and friends. For example, Jorge (male, 20 years old) stated,

Effective communication is something of the utmost importance for us to recognize and to understand and incorporate, make part of our relationship with people, not only our spouse or significant other, but again with friends and family as well. So, I think communication is probably the biggest component that we need to understand in order to have healthy relationships.

Specific to romantic relationships, Jessica (female, 24 years old) said “[You have to] be able to communicate with your significant other. Any disagreement or anything you don’t like, you just talk it over instead of simply just getting frustrated, aggravated.” This suggestion is also further validated by literature suggesting an inability to communicate effectively with a partner may trigger escalation of conflict and lead to DV (Hays et al., 2015). Moreover, research suggests that serious conflicts between family members and significant others are associated with heightened levels of stress among Latinos given the importance this group places on interdependence self-construals (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Conflict management skills

Another perspective expressed by study participants was a desire to better maintain relationships with significant others, friends, and family members by learning to effectively manage conflict. Participants also noted that learning this skillset would be a meaningful way to prevent DV among Latinos in college. For example, Mary (female, 20 years old) suggested DV prevention programming should include information on “how to fight fair, because sometimes we don’t realize how, when we are fighting, we get offensive and maybe we approach it in another way we can work it out. It wouldn’t get so bad.” A similar comment was made by Jessica (female, 24 years old), who said

there are people who get upset easily, [or] take it way too far, and like I would say it would benefit a lot of people to be knowledgeable of all the different levels of aggression and […] they should be able to learn [better ways] to handle themselves and get access to help.

Conflict management skills can deescalate couples’ arguments that otherwise may lead to aggression against a partner, thereby preventing potential situations leading to DV (Hays et al., 2015). Because of the importance of convivial collectivism among Latinos, the existence of conflict and discord can have a negative impact on their well-being (Campos & Kim, 2017); thus, learning to manage conflict can prevent escalation of conflicts into DV and have the added benefit of promoting well-being among Latino college students.

Consequences of staying in abusive relationships

As college students, these Latino participants shared their perceptions of the toll abusive relationships can have on students’ functioning in the context of their college career. For instance, Daniela (female, 21 years old) stated,

I think it could make you […] don’t want to hang out with your friends anymore, and so you may not be as involved in the organizations that you once were. And, it also, it could probably affect your GPA because you might find yourself, […] missing deadlines, or, not being able to keep up with the classwork or not even attending class.

Jessica (female, 24 years old) also reported.

Dating violence can be a traumatic experience for anyone. And so, it could make you feel uncomfortable in a college setting and, make you really not want to attend anymore. […] I think that it could really affect your other relationships, like your friendships, and so, it could make you not want to come to school at all.

A participant also reflected on her own academic struggles as a college student having been in an abusive relationship. Victoria (female, 28 years old) shared,

I was in a relationship for five years, and when I was in this relationship, […] I wasn’t doing as well in school as I should have been, and [there was] a moment when I realized that this [relationship] was not healthy and I ended it. After, I started doing well in school. […] It could have saved me a lot of time and heartbreak if I would have [had] help from school [and] help from family or friends.

Overall, participants recognized the negative impact abusive relationships can have on academic engagement, which further emphasizes the need for culturally tailored DV prevention initiatives at the college level.

Factors influencing relationships

Participants suggested DV prevention efforts should address the influence of culture, family, and media on shaping relationships. For example, Nicolas (male, 23 years old) mentioned,

It’s a give and take. Your partner might be from a different background and you need to understand what that all entails in terms of culture. Like Hispanic[s], we’re really loud when it comes to family […] and we don’t intend for it to be hurtful. It’s […] just how it is culturally.

Another participant, Luis (male, 21 years old) alluded to the impact of cultural gender role expectations on dating relationships and stated,

Culture can impact our relationships. Like since we come from the Mexican background, [there’s] machismo, and I see it a lot in my family. Like my mom’s sister and her daughter get pressured to serve the food [to my uncle] and wash the dishes and do the laundry, so culture impact[s] our way of [having] relationships.

Similarly, Ariana (female, 20 years old) shared

I grew up in a traditional Mexican family, where my dad was machista, and whatever he said, went. I think it was very unfair, and I saw it as normal. But now, I’m starting to see it as it’s not normal and it’s possible to be equal.

Yet another way in which culture may impact DV prevention programming was brought up by Roberto (male, 22 years old), who expressed it would take time to implement DV prevention programming in a primarily Latino community of college students, specifically stating,

[Talking about DV] is not something that’s normal within our culture. It’s something new, it’s something that hasn’t really been explored. It’s going to take some time to implement [any] program within our community. I think it’s going to be [important] to spread awareness, and reassuring people that it’s okay to seek help or to be curious about these things.

Overall, participants acknowledged the role cultural expectations play in setting norms for romantic relationship behaviors (Cummings et al., 2013). Their reflections show an important shift between their views and those of their family, a hallmark of acculturation (Berry, 2003).

Participants recognized that parental examples influence what is perceived as normative in the Latino community. For instance, Paola (female, 27 years old) said people learn about relationships from parents “because obviously if you see your parents fight you are going to and then if you have those types of fights with your significant other, you’re going to think its normal because I guess your parents went through it.” Similarly, Jessica (female, 24 years old) noted that “if you come from a home where your mom and dad are always arguing, you might grow up thinking that’s okay. So, you need like someone to tell you that it’s not ok.” Therefore, taking into consideration family values within the cultural context is key in the development of DV prevention programs.

Moreover, participants in the study emphasized the impact of media in shaping expectations and knowledge about relationships. For example, Paola (female, 27 years old) said

I think we see a lot [it] from entertainment, from like shows and TV [and] we think, ‘oh that’s a healthy relationship’ or like ‘that’s a bad relationship.’ Then I was thinking ‘that’s not actually real’ [but] we think that it’s [how things are] supposed to be.

Overall, participants stressed the importance of factors that influence and shape the expectations of college students regarding relationships. Their suggestions are consistent with the socioecological framework, which proposes DV is a multilayered and complex process requiring a variety of strategies to prevent DV among different ethnic groups (CDC, 2017).

Preferred elements of DV prevention programming

The importance of people and relationships emerged as the common thread linking the categories and subcategories of this theme. Specifically, two categories emerging from this theme were as follows: (a) collectivistic orientation and (b) diversity-oriented programming.

Collectivistic orientation

The importance of convivial collectivism was evident in the observations made by participants, whom they expressed would be more likely to engage in DV prevention programming if it taught them how to provide support to friends or family members dealing with abusive relationships. For example, Eric (male, 24 years old) reported attendance to any potential DV prevention program would be motivated “not necessarily for personal reasons, but to help out [others].” Similarly, Silvia (female, 22 years old) said

Some people [say] ‘I just didn’t see the signs,’ or ‘I knew too late,’ and if you had more knowledge of when to see these early signs of aggression, like maybe you could have changed their mind before anything happened, because for some people it gets to a point where it’s too late, they lose their life, or get hurt.

Participants highlighted that they would be responsive to DV prevention programming including information about resources and strategies they can use to help friends or family members. For example, Luis (male, 21 years old) indicated he would like to learn about “resources where you can go and be taught [to distinguish] between good and bad [relationships] and recognizing the signs of a bad relationship. That way you can help your friends.” Based on their responses, students seem interested in learning effective strategies to help friends and family members. This behavior aligns with the convivial collectivism characteristic of Latinos, which focuses on maintaining interdependence through positive and constructive interactions that provide support to important people in their lives (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Diverse programming

This category focuses on diversity of perspectives, modes or delivery, and programming strategies that would motivate participants to engage in DV prevention programming. As most Latino college students are millennials, they tend to value inclusion of voices from diverse genders, sexual orientations, and families of origin (Patten, 2016). Participants affirmed their perception that hearing a variety of perspectives related to DV would be appealing for Latino college students. For example, in Lucinda’s (female, 25 years old) FG, there was only one male participant. Part of her feedback was that “it would’ve been cool if we had more men in the group [to hear their] opinions.” Another participant, Jessica (female, 24 years old), suggested to involve “more people, because then you really see, how [it is] for other people in their house, you know because not everybody comes from the same families.” Marina (female, 25 years old) suggested that programming should be sensitive to inclusion of college students “who have same-sex parents or just a single parent.” These suggestions highlighted these college participants believed DV prevention programming should be committed to inclusion of diverse perspectives.

In addition, suggestions for diverse modes of programming delivery included creating DV programming in a class format, as attending classes is a significant and familiar part of their lives; thus, they suggested DV prevention programming would be suitably delivered in a class format. For instance, Rafael (male, 21 years old) stated,

A class that would help you [learn about healthy relationships] would be very nice in college. In college, for freshman year, because […] people at this time are going into relationships. I think that would help a lot of people who are entering this age where a lot of [unhealthy] things happen.

A similar suggestion was provided by Jessica (female, 24 years old), who favored programming that would resemble a “class similar to sexual education in some schools, so they should [also] have one for relationships.” Participants also shared ideas of potential activities that would make DV prevention programming attractive to a Latino college student audience. Specifically, many suggested DV prevention programs should include first-person experiences so that the concepts discussed could be more relatable. For example, Eric (male, 24 years old) suggested adding first-person experiences through “visual aids, like videos, and about [specific] situations,” and Jessica (female, 24 years old) suggested activities where participants “can picture ourselves and then we explain our thoughts and feelings towards that certain situation.” Another participant, Jesse (male, 24 years old) said “[I want to] hear about other people’s experiences. That they have been in unhealthy relationships and they know about it [and having] the freedom to express those things.” For these participants, a sense of intimacy and comfort would be an important factor making any DV prevention programming attractive. Specifically, Lety (female, 22 years old) expressed she would like DV prevention programming to allow “freedom to express [our views] in a confidential way. Where we can speak about it without being called stupid.” These suggestions for DV prevention programming fostering positive, active engagement, and maintenance of relationships are consistent with interdependent self-construals characteristic of the convivial collectivism found in Latino culture (Campos & Kim, 2017).

Discussion

DV is a significant problem affecting many college students. It is important that universities promote DV prevention programming because DV victimization is shown to significantly impact students’ likelihood to drop out due to disruptions on their social environment, manifestation of severe psychological symptoms, and declining academic performance. Since Latinos have higher college dropout rates compared with students from other ethnic groups, attention to their DV prevention perspectives, preferences, and needs is important. The purpose of this study was to explore Latino college students’ perspectives and preferences for DV prevention with the goal of obtaining an integrated understanding of culturally congruent DV prevention strategies that can ultimately foster Latino college persistence. Results from this research highlight the importance of considering the cultural context to prevent DV and the associated dropout among Latino college students. Two major themes were highlighted: (a) the importance of the interdependent self-construal and (b) preferred elements of DV prevention programming. In collectivistic cultures, the self is intricately connected with others in their social system; this interdependent self-construal is whole through being in relationships (Campos & Kim, 2017). However, relationships require flexibility and adaptation, and each individual must rely on contextual and social cues to determine behavior (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). It follows that Latino college students in the study expressed their preference that DV prevention work focus on providing knowledge that can be used to manage relationships, including education about different types of relationships and the factors that influence them, which include family and parental models, Latino cultural norms, and media portrayals of relationships. Participants emphasized their preference for programming that provides skills that foster maintenance of relationships through positive interactions and prevention of conflict. This focus is likely to increase overall engagement in social and academic endeavors; thus, ultimately, preventing their dropout from college due to DV-associated factors.

Our study also shows participants emphasized that programming should be sensitive to family dynamics in the context of the Latino culture. For example, participants noted the strong impact of machismo on relationship dynamics they observe in their families. Although participants did not label certain behaviors as marianismo, they alluded to the likelihood that some women justify certain controlling and abusive behaviors as normative in their relationships with Latino men. While students did not directly address acculturation’s impact on healthy or abusive relationships, many students observed their perceptions of normative family dynamics were shifting and becoming different from their parents'. Thus, DV preventive work should provide opportunities for Latinos to explore their own identification with the American and Latino cultures. Effective student-centered DV preventive work is likely to translate into lower levels of student dropout by preventing DV and its negative sequelae and promoting student engagement.

Furthermore, participants expressed they would prefer DV prevention programming that has a collectivistic orientation and shows diversity in their mode of information delivery, perspectives, and strategies utilized. These Latino participants emphasized the importance of a collectivistic orientation as they affirmed it would be essential for DV prevention programming to include information regarding on how to help friends or family members, as well as creating programming that fosters the establishment of relationships with other Latino students to create a sense of community (Gonzales et al., 2015). This finding is one key contribution our study makes to the literature regarding the DV preventive programming preferences of college-attending Latinos. In addition, participants also believed that DV prevention programming should include a diversity of media, activities, and of first-person experiences. Based on the research linking college student dropout and DV, we can conclude that preventing DV among Latinos in college will likely result in decreases of student dropout. Preventing DV means preventing the development of symptoms associated with traumatic stress, which have been shown to decrease academic achievement and student engagement, thereby precipitating circumstances leading to dropout (Banyard et al., 2017; Mengo & Black, 2016). Moreover, a culturally responsive approach to DV has the potential of increasing Latino student retention, thus not only preventing DV but also increasing the likelihood of college persistence.

Limitations

There are several limitations observed in the present study, one of which is its small-sample size. While the sampling was purposeful and targeted to reach data saturation, FGs may not provide the kind of in-depth information available through individual interviews (Krueger & Casey, 2015). Although efforts were made to enhance transferability, results may not be representative of other Latino college students because students interviewed in our study reside in a community located on the U.S.-Mexico border, where about 97% of the population identifies as Hispanic or Latino (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Thus, the homogeneity of the population may affect the perspectives of this group of Latino college students. Another limitation is that a majority of participants in the sample identified as heterosexual, thus providing perspectives as they relate to heterosexual relationships among Latinos. While some participants endorsed a sexual minority orientation, we did not link information from the demographic surveys to the pseudonyms used in the FGs to preserve confidentiality; therefore, we had no way of analyzing their responses separately from other responses in the FGs. Due to limited access to participants, we could not conduct member-checking to enhance trustworthiness of our study’s results. Despite these limitations, this study provided insight into the specific preferences regarding DV prevention programming among Latinos in college.

Implications

Overall, the results of this study indicate that Latino college students prefer DV prevention programming that places interdependent self-construals front and center and in a culturally congruent context that considers Latino cultural norms and dynamics. Specifically, this research suggests that Latino college students want programming that includes discussions of machismo, marianismo, and intergenerational family dynamics, clarifying their identification with their Latino and American cultural heritage in addition to general topics like building healthy relationships. Higher education institutions should consider the acculturation and generational status of their students as a general guideline for incorporating strategies that best fit the Latino campus population.

Findings also highlight the importance of engaging Latino students using strategies congruent with their preference for convivial collectivism and interdependence. For example, a way to influence Latino students’ buy-in to prevention efforts may be utilizing a collectivistic mindset and including “help a friend” campaigning to increase their responsiveness to DV prevention programming. Our study also suggests that although Latino college students prefer programming that fosters warm, caring interactions with others, which is consistent with research suggesting that building community for Latinos on university campuses is conducive to their persistence (Gonzales et al., 2015). An important consideration is that this study focused on students in a Hispanic Serving Institution, which is a notably distinct environment compared with a Primarily White Institution. Nonetheless, culturally responsive adaptations to DV programming based on our research can promote the well-being and persistence of Latinos attending college, as well as ensuring universities provide support for a diverse student body (Mengo & Black, 2016).

Appendix

Focus Group Interview Protocol

I am going to ask your thoughts about dating violence prevention, preferences, and ideas. Depending on your answer, we may ask probing questions. When you provide answers, consider the role of your cultural background.

From your perspective, what is dating violence?

From your perspective, what factors lead to dating violence?

From your perspective, how would you prevent dating violence?

What is the role of Latino culture in shaping romantic relationships? Dating violence?

What characteristics would you like to see in a program to prevent dating violence for Latinos in college?

As a Latino, what would you be interested to learn in a program to prevent dating violence?

What kind of information about dating violence do you think would be useful to learn as a Latino in college?

What kind of programs or strategies do you believe would work well with Latino college students?

Where do you believe Latino college students learn about relationships?

Would you be interested in learning about preventing dating violence in relationships? Why or why not?

Is there anything you would like to add that I have not asked about?

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Elizabeth Terrazas-Carrillo, PhD, is an assistant professor of Counseling Psychology at Texas A&M International University. Her research interests include exploring the intersection of identities within vulnerable populations, including international students, Mexican and Mexican American women, and Spanish-speaking immigrants in the United States on a variety of issues affecting mental health, psychological adjustment, and well-being. She has a special interest in mentoring and supervising graduate students, as well as fostering cultural competence among her counseling trainees.

Ediza Garcia, PsyD, is an assistant professor of Counseling Psychology at Texas A&M International University and serves as the Director of the Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology program. Her research interests include promoting resilience among at-risk children and families through mental health literacy and culturally responsive interventions.

Jonathan Briseño is a bilingual counselor and advocate at Fenway Health’s Behavioral Health Department in the Violence Recovery Program in Boston, MA. He works with survivors of all gender identities and sexual orientations regarding dating violence and sexual assault. He also works and specializes with individuals experiencing or who have experienced anti-LGBTQ police misconduct and anti-LGBTQ hate crimes. He has a master’s degree in Counseling Psychology from Texas A&M International University where his research was focused primarily on cultural vulnerabilities and influence on an array of aspects within the Hispanic student population which included intimate partner violence and eating disorder risk.

Itzamara De La Cruz is a counselor or home visitor at Serving Children and Adults in Need (SCAN- inc). She focuses on parenting education and trauma in children. She has a master’s degree in Counseling Psychology from Texas A&M International University where her research focus centered on cultural vulnerabilities in regard to intimate partner violence among Hispanic college students. She has a special interest in researching prevention of dating relationships involving violence among college students and resiliency in children after traumatic events.

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