Police Violence Exposure and Associated Health Outcomes Among Latinx Adults in the United States: An Integrative Review

Abstract

Police violence exposure among Latinx adults in the United States is increasingly concerning due to its prevalence and associated risks for adverse mental, behavioral, and physical health outcomes. This integrative review appraised studies published from 2003 to 2023 that examine the relationship between police violence exposure and negative health outcomes in Latinx adults. Using structured search terms, articles were identified in APA PsycInfo and PubMed databases, supplemented by a gray literature search and citation mining. Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings indicate a significant positive association between police violence exposure and adverse mental (n = 9), behavioral (n = 2), and physical (n = 1) health outcomes. The results underscore the mental, behavioral, and physical health consequences of police violence exposure for Latinx adults. Given the increasing Latinx population in the United States, further research is needed to better understand this relationship and inform interventions.

Keywords

Latinx adults police violence health

Introduction

In recent years, the intersection of law enforcement practices and public health in the United States (U.S.) has emerged as a critical area of study, particularly concerning the implications of police violence for minority populations (DeVylder et al., 2020). Police violence, broadly defined, encompasses various harmful behaviors by law enforcement officers toward individuals, including physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect or misconduct (DeVylder, Frey et al., 2017; DeVylder et al., 2022; National Institute of Justice, 1999). This phenomenon extends beyond the use of physical force to actions that undermine an individual’s dignity, rights, and access to justice (Motley & Baidoo, 2023). Direct exposure refers to personal victimization by police violence or witnessing police violence in-person, while indirect exposure includes knowing someone who has been a victim or seeing a video of police violence in the media (Motley et al., 2023). Research has suggested that the experiences of police violence are uniquely traumatic and are compounded by systemic issues like racial profiling and discrimination (Alang et al., 2021; Boyce, 2020; DeVylder et al., 2020).

Nationally, individuals from ethnic minority populations (e.g., Black, Latinx) are three to four times more likely to be killed by police officer(s) and two to three times more likely to experience police threat or use of non-fatal violence than their counterparts from the dominant White ethnic group (Edwards et al., 2019; Hyland et al., 2015; Motley & Joe, 2018). Findings from extant literature also document an association between exposure to both fatal and non-fatal police violence and associated negative health outcomes among ethnic minority populations (DeVylder et al., 2020; Haile et al., 2023). Furthermore, the culture within police departments often deters internal accountability, exacerbating the trauma experienced by those who are subjected to police violence (Alang, 2020; Motley et al., 2020). While the recognition that police violence acts as a social determinant of health for ethnic minority populations is growing (Alang et al., 2021), there has yet to be a comprehensive integrative review conducted to examine the prevalence and health-related consequences linked to police violence among Latinx adults.

The Latinx population in the U.S., characterized by its diverse origins, constitutes a significant segment of the national demographic tapestry (Funk & Lopez, 2022). As of the latest U.S. Census data, the size of the Latinx population reached 63.7 million, representing 19.1% of the total U.S. population (United States Census Bureau, 2023). Over the last decade, the Latinx population has been a significant driving force behind the population increase in the U.S. Findings from a recent Pew Research Center survey revealed that from 2010 to 2022, the U.S. saw a growth of 24.5 million in its population, with the Latinx population contributing to 53% of this growth, which is a larger percentage than any other ethnic minority group (Krogstad et al., 2023). The diversity of the Latinx population is reflected in their cultural, immigrant, and socioeconomic backgrounds and may also be in their varied experiences with exposure to police violence, leading to a complex mosaic of experiences that defy a one-size-fits-all narrative. Informed by the Minority Threat Theory (Blalock, 1967), this integrative review aims to evaluate and synthesize findings from peer-reviewed literature published from 2003 to 2023 to determine the health outcomes of Latinx adults who have experienced exposure to police violence.

Minority Threat Theory

The Minority Threat Theory (Blalock, 1967) is adapted as the central theoretical framework to understand how exposure to police violence is linked to adverse health outcomes among Latinx adults in the U.S. This theory posits that Latinx adults in the U.S. are perceived as a threat to the White dominant group due to their growing population size and potential political and economic influence. This perception of threat arises from fears of economic competition, political power shifts, and cultural changes that may undermine the majority group’s status and resources (Frost & Meyer, 2023; Meyer, 2003). Law enforcement agencies, as instruments of social control, are likely to act on these perceived threats through discriminatory practices and violence to maintain the existing social hierarchy (Cazenave, 2018; Chambliss & Seidman, 1980; Delgado, 2020; Motley & Baidoo, 2023). Racial threat often drives racial profiling as a policing practice that have been used to target and suppress the potential threat that individuals from ethnic minority groups pose to the dominate White group and has been found to be associated with police violence toward these groups (Parker et al., 2005; Warren et al., 2006; Weitzer & Touch, 2002). This dynamic is also driven by the dominant group’s desire to protect its power and resources from perceived encroachments by the growing Latinx minority population. Concurrently, minority threat theory posits that acts of police violence engender a stressful environment detrimental to the health of targeted individuals (Meyer, 2003). The concept of “racial battle fatigue” elucidates the psychological and physiological toll exacted by persistent discrimination and microaggressions (Hernández and Villodas, 2020). This body of literature underscores that chronic exposure to racial stressors precipitates substantial mental and physical health challenges among ethnic minority populations (Smith et al., 2006; Woods et al., 2021). By integrating this perspective, we can more comprehensively understand the extensive impact of police violence on the health of Latinx adults.

This integrative review has the potential to elucidate the particular ways in which police violence impacts the health of Latinx adults—a demographic that has historically been marginalized and disproportionately affected by such violence. By focusing on Latinx adults, this review can contribute to a more equitable health research paradigm by ensuring that the unique experiences of this group are represented in the literature. Synthesizing evidence on the health consequences of police violence can be instrumental for healthcare providers, social workers, and policymakers in developing targeted interventions to mitigate the adverse health outcomes associated with police violence exposure. Furthermore, understanding the impact of police violence can inform public policy, guide law enforcement reforms, and direct resources to improve social justice outcomes.

Methods

An integrative review was chosen as the method as it allowed for inclusion of experimental and non- experimental studies to understand the mental, behavioral, and physical health of Latinx adults in relation to police violence exposure (Whittemore & Knalf, 2005). Police violence exposure is defined as either direct (e.g., victimization or witnessing in person) or indirect (e.g., through television or the internet) exposure to harmful behaviors by law enforcement officers, including physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect or misconduct (DeVylder et al., 2022; National Institute of Justice, 1999; Motley et al., 2023). Mental health is defined as “emotional, psychological, and social well-being” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). Behavioral health refers to the impact of behaviors on one’s overall health and wellness, including aspects like substance use, as identified by the American Medical Association (2023) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2022). The operational definition for physical health is “any physiological characteristic or process that indicated the presence or absence of illness or injury” (Wright et al., 2017). For this integrative review, the methodology outlined by Whittemore and Knalf (2005) was followed, comprising the following stages: (a) identifying the problem, (b) conducting a literature search, (c) evaluating the data, (d) extracting relevant data, and (e) compiling the findings for presentation.

Stage 1: Problem Identification

While there is extensive literature examining the relationship between police violence exposure and health outcomes, there is a lack of knowledge regarding its impact on the health outcomes of Latinx adults. Considering the rapid growth of the Latinx population in the U.S., enhancing our knowledge of this issue is vital for designing interventions and broad strategies to mitigate the harmful health outcomes associated with experiences of police violence exposure, and to better prepare health professionals who serve this community.

Stage 2: Literature Search

A flow diagram from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) for this review is presented in Figure 1 (Page et al., 2021). The literature search was carried out using APA PsycInfo and PubMed. After meeting with a subject librarian, the following search terms were used for all databases: (“law enforcement” OR “ICE” OR “police officers” OR police OR cops OR cop OR “police brutality”) AND (Latin* OR Hispanic OR Spanish) AND (“Adulthood (18 yrs & older)”) AND (depression OR “post-traumatic stress” OR anxiety OR health OR “substance use*” OR “drug use*” OR “substance abuse*” OR “drug abuse*” OR “alcohol abuse*” OR “illicit use*” OR suicide). Google Scholar searches and reading references of selected articles were used to identify additional articles.

Figure 1.

Flowchart of included studies.

Inclusion criteria included articles that were in English, conducted in the U.S., included Latinx adults, and published from 2003 to August 2023, to ensure the most recent data were analyzed. Articles were excluded if they did not focus specifically on police violence exposure and its association with health outcomes and include Latinx adults in the study sample. Dissertations and brief reports were also not included.

Study Selection

The database search yielded a total of 1,780 citations. Nine hundred and thirty-six articles were retrieved from PsycInfo, 829 from PubMed, and 15 from Google Scholar. The search results were uploaded to Covidence, an online reference manager. After duplicates were removed, there were 1,374 remaining. The PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) displays the process of determining eligible articles (Page et al., 2021). First, titles and abstracts were screened for eligibility (n = 1,374) by two reviewers, yielding 64 articles. 11 articles were unable to be retrieved which resulted in 53 full-text articles. Two authors went through 53 full-text evaluations. After the full-text reviews, 11 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review.

Stage 3: Data Evaluation

The Johns Hopkins Nursing Evidence-Based Practice (JHNEBP) Research Evidence Appraisal Tool was used to determine level of evidence and quality of all eligible articles (Dang & Dearholt, 2017). Each article was assigned a level evidence score (I, II, or III) and a quality of evidence score (A, B, or C). Level I indicate a randomized controlled trial, level II indicates a quasi-experimental design, and level III indicates non-experimental designs like qualitative studies. For the quality of evidence: A is high quality, B is good quality, and C is low quality. High-quality studies are those with conclusive, generalizable results and a plentiful sample size, and the high-quality consistent recommendations were constructed from an extensive literature review (Dang & Dearholt, 2017). Good-quality studies are those with fairly conclusive and generalizable results, adequate sample size, and moderately consistent recommendations from a fair literature review (Dang & Dearholt, 2017). Finally, poor-quality studies are those with inconclusive results and inadequate sample size, and definitive recommendations could not be drawn from the study (Dang & Dearholt, 2017).

Evidence Level and Quality

9 out of 11 studies investigated yielded “A” or high quality after review of criteria according to JHNEBP (see Table 1). Two studies were “B” or good quality (Smith et al., 2020, 2022). Also, all 11 studies met criteria for level III (non-experimental studies). No studies were considered low quality.

Table 1.

Study Characteristics.

Author and Year	Study Design	Measure of Police Violence	Objective	Population	Key Findings	Quality
Abreu et al. (2021)	Qualitative	Semi-structured interviews	Examine how immigrant Latinx transgender people were impacted by Trump’s presidency.	15 transgender Latinx participants, ages 23–69	Participants reported experiencing police violence and increased depression, anxiety, and fear. Participants also reported that religion, spirituality, and family support acted as effective coping tools.	IIIA
Alang et al. (2021)	Cross-sectional, secondary data analysis	Unstructured interviews accessing participants exposure to police violence (hitting, kicking, shoving, using an electroshock weapon such as a stun gun, or pointing a gun at them)	Examine the relationship between police violence and depression and anxiety.	510 male and female Latinx participants out of 4,345 total participants, ages 18 and up	Violent police encounters were associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms.	IIIA
DeVylder, Frey et al. (2017)	Cross-sectional, quantitative	Police practices inventory	Determine if victims of police violence in the USA have elevated prevalence of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.	184 Latinx participants of 1,615	Police violence was associated with an increase in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.	IIIA
DeVylder et al. (2018)	Cross-sectional, quantitative	Police practices inventory	Examine the association between exposure to police violence and concurrent mental health symptoms independent of trauma history, crime involvement, and interpersonal violence exposure.	178 Latinx participants out of 1,000	Assaultive forms of police violence (i.e., physical violence with a weapon and sexual violence) displayed the largest effect sizes for suicide attempts, suicidal ideation, psychological distress, and psychotic experiences.	IIIA
Howard et al. (2023)	Cross-sectional, quantitative	Three questions regarding distress about police brutality	Examine temporal trends and correlates of self-reported distress about police brutality among a cohort of young adults.	1,145 Latinx participants out of 2,080	Mean levels of distress about police brutality increased following George Floyd’s murder for weeks.	IIIA
Mattingly et al. (2022)	Cross-sectional, quantitative	Change in distress about police brutality	Examine a relationship between exposure to police brutality and drug use.	N = 1,797 Latinx N = 979	A single unit increase in exposure to police brutality was associated with higher odds of cannabis use, 13% higher use of alcohol use, and a higher risk of using additional substances.	IIIA
Salas-Hernandez et al. (2022)	Cross-sectional, secondary-data analysis quantitative	Police practices inventory	Examine the relationship between patterns of exposure to policing and mental health outcomes.	362 Latinx participants out of 2,615	Significant association between police violence exposure and adverse mental health outcomes. Foreign-born participants were less likely to have high levels of exposure to police violence.	IIIA
Sewell (2017)	Cross-sectional, secondary-data analysis quantitative	New York City community health survey.	Determine whether the public health burden of excessive or ethnoracially inequitable police use of force are amplified or buffered by ethnoracial composition.	Latinx = 25.4%	Police violence exposure among Latinx adults living predominantly white areas was associated with high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.	IIIA
Smith et al. (2020)	Cross-sectional, quantitative	Police practices inventory	Determine associations between police violence exposure, specifically gun violence, and depression, psychological distress, suicidal ideation, and psychosis-like experiences.	N = 1,615 Latinx N = 183	Exposure to police violence was associated with depression, suicidal ideation, psychological distress, and psychotic experiences.	IIIB
Smith et al. (2022)	Cross-sectional; secondary data analysis	California’s Ursus Program (complaints of excessive force)	To test relationships between complaints of excessive use of police violence and racial/ethnic population demographics, allowing for social and mental health variables.	Latinx = 39%	Excessive police force reports by Latinx adults were associated with mental distress and excessive drinking.	IIIB
Walsdorf et al. (2023)	Qualitative	Unstructured individual interviews accessing experiences of witnessing police violence and perceived mental health needs.	To explore the experience of proximal and collective witnessing of police violence among Latinx young adults.	Latinx = 21	Indirect police violence exposure was associated with an increase in anxiety, depression, psychological distress, and fear. Participants also reported engaging in mobilizing behaviors, such as advocating for social political change and self-preservation behaviors.	IIIA

Stage 4: Data Extraction

Information was extracted from each study by two authors for synthesis. Each article was examined thoroughly, and data were documented manually in a Word document. If any discrepancies arose between the two authors, then it was settled through discussions with the other authors. The information extracted included the study design, police violence measure, objective of the study, population, and key findings, which can be found in Table 1. A priori categories were determined based on the purpose of this review which is to determine mental, behavioral, and physical health outcomes associated with police violence exposure.

Results

Study Design, Characteristics, and Method of Data Collection

Out of the 11 studies included in this review, two studies were qualitative (Abreu et al., 2021; Walsdorf et al., 2023) and 9 were quantitative cross-sectional studies (Alang et al., 2021; DeVylder, Frey et al., 2017; DeVylder et al., 2018; Mattingly et al., 2022; Sewell, 2017; Salas-Hernandez et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2020, 2022). None of the studies were randomized clinical trials. One out of the 11 studies assessed immigration background of Latinx adults impacted by police violence exposure (Smith et al., 2022) and three studies examined gender and sexual orientation (Abreu et al., 2021; DeVylder et al., 2018; Howard et al., 2022). Most studies used the Police Practices Inventory (DeVylder, Oh et al., 2017) to assess police violence exposure. The sample sizes among studies ranged from 15 to 1,145 participants identifying as Latinx.

Synthesis of Key Findings

After review of all the articles, the health outcomes associated with police violence exposure were separated into three different categories: mental health (n = 9), behavioral health (n = 2), and physical health (n = 1). Two studies also examined moderating factors that buffered the effects of police violence exposure on health outcomes. Critical key findings can be found in Table 2.

Table 2.

Critical Findings.

• Eleven studies about health outcomes in Latinx adults related to police violence exposure were included.
• Nine of the studies focused on mental health outcomes like depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, and psychological distress, whereas two focused on behavioral and one focused on physical health outcomes.
• Family support, religion, and spiritual affiliation were factors found to buffer the effect of police violence exposure on health outcomes.

Mental Health

Mental health outcomes were the most common health outcome found to be associated with police violence exposure among the included articles (n = 9). Findings from the studies included in the review found that police violence exposure were associated with psychological/mental distress (DeVylder et al., 2018; Howard et al., 2023; Smith et al., 2020, 2022; Walsdorf et al., 2023), depression (Abreu et al., 2021; Alang et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2020; Walsdorf et al., 2023), anxiety (Abreu et al., 2021; Alang et al., 2021; Walsdorf et al., 2023), suicidal ideation (DeVylder, Frey et al., 2017; DeVylder et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2020), psychotic experiences (DeVylder et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2020), and overall poorer mental health (Salas-Hernandez et al., 2022).

In a cross-sectional study, Alang et al. (2021) investigated the association between negative police encounters in urban areas in the U.S. and adult participants’ reports of depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants were asked to self-report if they had ever experienced being a victim of any violent interactions with the police where the policed cursed at them, physically assaulted them (such as hitting, kicking, or shoving), used an electroshock weapon like a stun gun, or pointed a firearm at them. Sixty-three percent of Latinx adults (n = 322 out of 510) reported having a negative encounter with police that involved the police using violence toward them. Of those who reported experience police violence, 49% (n = 158) felt the violence used by police was necessary and 51% (n = 164) felt the violence used was unnecessary. When compared to those with no negative police encounters, participants who reported that the violence used by police was necessary had higher odds of depression (OR = 1.68, p ≤ .001) and anxiety (OR = 1.74, p ≤ .01). Moreover, those who reported that the violence used by police was unnecessary had even higher odds of depression (OR = 2.21, p ≤ .001) and anxiety (OR = 2.12, p ≤ .001), underscoring the prevalence and impact of perceived unnecessary violence police encounters on the mental health of Latinx adults.

DeVylder, Frey et al. (2017) examined the association between police violence and suicidal ideation in adults in Baltimore, MD, New York, NY, and Washington, DC. The total sample was 1,615 participants and Latinx adults comprised 11.4% of the sample. Police violence was measured using the Police Practices Inventory (DeVylder, Oh et al., 2017), which comprises five binary items evaluating lifetime exposure as a victim to various forms of violence, including physical (with or without a weapon), sexual, psychological, and neglect. The majority of participants self-reported being a victim of police violence in the forms of psychological (18.4%) and neglect (18.3%). It was found that victimization from police was significantly associated with reporting of suicidal ideation, emphasizing the negative consequences police victimization has on suicidal ideation among Latinx adults.

A study by Salas-Hernandez et al. (2022) utilized latent class analysis to explore the different patterns of direct and indirect exposures to police violence and their connections to mental health outcomes among a sample (n = 2,615) of adults residing in four U.S. cities (Baltimore, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington). Police violence exposure was measured using the Police Practices Inventory (DeVylder, Oh et al., 2017) to assess participants’ self-reported experiences with direct and indirect police violence exposure that included physical, psychological, sexual, and neglect. Most participants reported experiencing direct police violence in the form of neglect (20.1%), whereas 24% reported experiencing indirect police violence in the form of psychological. Approximately 4% of participants were classified as having experienced extreme police violence exposure (i.e., higher rates of direct and indirect police violence exposure) and that membership in this class was significantly associated with higher levels of anticipation of future police victimization, psychological distress, and suicide ideations. In addition, members of the extreme police violence exposure class were more likely to identify as Black, cisgender men, and Latinx.

Finally, DeVylder et al. (2018) utilized the Police Practices Inventory (DeVylder, Oh et al., 2017) with a sample of adults (N = 1,615) residing in Baltimore (n = 226), New York City (n = 624), Philadelphia (n = 469), and Washington D.C. (n = 299) to assess participants self-reported experiences of police violence victimization. The authors found that of the Latinx participants (n = 178) in their sample, 11.2% self-reported being a victim of police physical violence without a weapon, 4.5% physical violence with a weapon, 3.4% sexual violence, 14% psychological violence, and 19.1% neglect during the past 12 months. In addition, all forms of police violence exposure, except for police neglect, were significantly associated with greater odds of psychotic experiences. These studies collectively highlight a concerning trend of increased mental health risks, including heightened psychological distress and suicidal ideation among Latinx adults, stemming from various forms of police violence exposure.

Behavioral Health

Two studies identified an association between police violence exposure and negative behavioral outcomes, specifically substance use, among Latinx adults (Mattingly et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2022). Mattingly et al. (2022) examined longitudinal relationship between distress about police brutality and past 30-day substance use for a sample of adults (54.4% Latinx) in Los Angeles County, CA. Participants self-reported whether they were “concerned,” “worried,” or “stressed” about “police brutality or unfair treatment of members in their community by law enforcement at baseline (spring 2017) and follow-up (spring/summer 2020). Participants were also assessed on their use of nicotine, cannabis, alcohol, and other drugs (prescription painkillers, stimulant pills, or sedatives, and heroin use) during each data collection timepoint. For Latinx adults, every unit increase in distress about police brutality was associated with 13% higher alcohol use (OR: 1.13, p < .05) and 6% higher risk of using additional substances (OR: 1.06, p < .05). Similarly, Smith et al. (2022) examined police violence and associated health outcomes by analyzing records from 195 municipal police departments in California to identify citizen complaints of police excessive use of force from data collected by the California Ursus Program. The authors found that mental distress, excessive drinking, and identification as Latinx were independently associated with complaints of police excessive use of force. Findings from the aforementioned studies demonstrate the significant association between exposure to police violence and increased substance use in Latinx adults, indicating a need for targeted interventions to address this behavioral health concern.

Physical Health

Only one study in the current review assessed the relationship between exposure to police violence and physical health outcomes among Latinx adults. Sewell (2017) investigated police use of force by utilizing data from the 2009 to 2012 New York City Community Health Survey and the Stop, Question, and Frisk database. The author applied multilevel modeling to evaluate the relationships between neighborhood-level police use of force (i.e., use of the officer’s hands, placing a suspect on the ground, placing a suspect against the wall, drawing the officer’s weapon, pointing the weapon at the suspect, and use of baton, handcuffs, pepper spray, or other physical object) and self-reported individual health outcomes (i.e., overall health status, diabetes and high blood pressure diagnosis from a medical professional, and obese body mass index). Results from the study revealed that Latinx adults living in neighborhoods with large racial disparities in police use of force increased their risk of developing diabetes and obesity, whereas Latinx adults living in a predominantly White neighborhoods with a low amount of police use of force had a lower probability of developing diabetes, high blood pressure, and obesity. These findings of a significant link between police violence exposure and adverse physical health outcomes highlight the broader health impacts of police practices for Latinx adults.

Moderating Factors

Although not a focal point of the current review, two studies accessed the influence of moderating factors in the relationship between police violence exposure and health outcomes among Latinx adults (Abreu et al., 2021; Walsdorf et al., 2023). In their qualitative study, Abreu et al. (2021) investigated the impact of Trump’s presidency on the experiences of immigrant Latinx transgender adults, specifically focusing on their encounters with societal discrimination, law enforcement violence, and their coping mechanisms. Police violence exposure was measured through participants’ narratives in semi-structured interviews, which detailed their personal experiences of discrimination, surveillance, and physical violence by law enforcement officials. The study sample consisted of 15 self-identified immigrant Latinx transgender adults living in a large metropolitan city in Florida with varied immigration statuses, including U.S. citizens, permanent residents, and undocumented individuals. The authors found that family support, religion, and spiritual affiliation were coping strategies used among study participants to buffer the effects of police violence exposure on depression and anxiety symptoms. Additionally, participants cited pride in their identity and resilience, hope for a better future, and short-term avoidance of harmful spaces or discussions as important coping mechanisms, highlighting the multifaceted ways in which participants seek to maintain well-being amidst adversity.

Finally, Walsdorf et al. (2023) qualitative study explore how Latinx young adults experience and cope with the mental health impacts of witnessing police violence and immigration-related adversities. Police violence exposure was measured through participants’ self-reported experiences and observations of police brutality and discriminatory practices within their communities, collected via in-depth individual interviews. The study sample consisted of 21 Latinx young adults aged 18 to 25 from Central Texas, predominantly female (90.5%), with a mix of first-generation immigrants and U.S.-born individuals. Findings revealed that engaging in political advocacy and self-preservation behaviors, such as cultural collectivism, were crucial coping strategies for Latinx adults facing adverse mental health outcomes from police violence exposure. Additionally, participants emphasized the importance of community support, mobilization for systemic change, and fostering resilience through shared cultural practices and social cohesion. These strategies not only helped mitigate immediate mental health impacts but also empowered individuals to combat long-term societal challenges associated with police violence.

Discussion

Our review aimed to identify and synthesize the available literature on the mental, physical, and behavioral health consequences of police violence exposure among Latinx individuals. The findings revealed that police violence exposure is significantly associated with various negative health outcomes for Latinx adults, including mental health issues (anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, and psychological distress), behavioral health problems (suicide attempts and substance use), and physical health conditions (high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes). These results are consistent with findings among Black adults (DeVylder et al., 2020, 2022; Haile et al., 2023) and align with the minority threat theory, which posits that stressful life experiences, such as police violence exposure, lead to adverse health outcomes in ethnic minority individuals (Blalock, 1967; Frost & Meyer, 2023; Meyer, 2003).

Certain coping responses can act as protective factors that mitigate the adverse health impacts of violence exposure (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). These responses are crucial for understanding the complex relationship between police violence exposure and subsequent negative health outcomes. Protective factors, such as family support, religion/spiritual affiliation, and political advocacy, were identified in the review as effective in mitigating the adverse health effects of police violence exposure. These findings are supported by previous research, which has demonstrated the utility of individual and collective coping mechanisms in addressing significant stressors and reducing adverse mental (Andrade et al., 2021; Crockett et al., 2007; Pina-Watson et al., 2019; Stein et al., 2023), behavioral (Lardier et al., 2018; Rogers et al., 2022, 2023), and physical (Gonzalez-Guarda et al., 2021) health outcomes.

The current integrative review is crucial as it sheds light on the significant impact of police violence exposure on the mental, behavioral, and physical health of Latinx adults. It underscores the heightened vulnerability of this demographic to negative health outcomes stemming from such violence, a topic that has not been comprehensively explored before. Importantly, the review identifies critical coping strategies, such as religion/spiritual affiliation and political advocacy, which can mitigate the adverse health effects associated with police violence exposure. These insights are vital for informing healthcare providers and policymakers in developing targeted interventions and public policies. By highlighting the unique challenges faced by Latinx adults and their coping strategies, this review makes a significant contribution to the fields of public health and social work.

Strength and Limitations

The current review stands out for its comprehensive approach to understanding the health impacts of police violence exposure on Latinx adults, providing invaluable insights into the mental, behavioral, and physical health ramifications for this population. The included studies presented diverse study designs, such as qualitative and cross-sectional, capturing a broad spectrum of experiences related to police violence exposure among Latinx adults. Additionally, the inclusion of studies discussing moderating factors offered a clearer understanding of the protective elements influencing the relationship between police violence exposure and health outcomes.

Despite the powerful insights provided, this review is not without limitations. The first limitation is that most studies included in this integrative review utilized cross-sectional designs, which restricts our ability to make causal inferences about the relationships between police violence exposure and health outcomes. Longitudinal research is needed to elucidate the temporal dynamics of these associations and provide stronger evidence for the development of intervention strategies. Second, the reliance on participants’ self-reports may introduce recall biases, potentially minimizing the accuracy of the reported experiences with police violence exposure and health outcomes. Finally, the lack of focus on immigration and refugee status prevents a deeper understanding of the variability in police violence exposure and associated health outcomes within the Latinx adult population. Addressing this gap would yield a more nuanced understanding of the distinct experiences and needs within the Latinx population, thereby enhancing the relevance and applicability of the research findings.

Implications for Practice, Policy, and Research

Police violence exposure is considered a social determinant of health, defined by the World Health Organization as “the non-medical factors that influence health outcomes” (Healthy People, n.d.; World Health Organization, 2023). These factors “are the conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, and the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life” (Healthy People, n.d.; World Health Organization, 2023). The findings of this comprehensive review are highly relevant for practitioners, policymakers, and researchers working with Latinx adults in the U.S. who experience police violence exposure. It is critical for practitioners to recognize the widespread nature of such experiences within this community, as illustrated comprehensively by this review. Documented instances of police violence exposure experiences have profound and enduring effects on the health of these individuals (Abreu et al., 2021; DeVylder et al., 2018; Mattingly et al., 2022; Sewell, 2017; Smith et al., 2020), underlining the need for culturally informed and sensitive approaches in practice, policy formulation, and future research.

This review highlights the imperative for targeted healthcare and community interventions tailored to the distinct challenges Latinx adults face due to police violence. Clinicians and healthcare professionals must assess police violence exposure among Latinx adults, as it significantly impacts their mental, physical, and behavioral health, necessitating culturally sensitive and trauma-informed care approaches. Moreover, the review identifies key coping strategies, such as family support, spiritual affiliation, and political advocacy (Abreu et al., 2021; Walsdorf et al., 2023). These strategies not only mitigate the immediate impacts of police violence on the health of Latinx adults but also foster long-term resilience by reinforcing community bonds and promoting collective empowerment (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019; Gullett et al., 2022). Identifying and building on these coping strategies during interventions with Latinx adults could enhance the effectiveness of mental health support, ensuring culturally relevant and sustainable resilience-building that ultimately contributes to their overall well-being.

The comprehensive findings on the health impacts of police violence exposure for Latinx adults carry profound policy implications. They highlight a critical need for policy interventions to address the spectrum of health issues, particularly mental health, exacerbated by police violence exposure. Policies must focus on providing culturally sensitive healthcare services, increasing awareness and training among health professionals about the specific needs arising from police violence exposure, and implementing community-based support systems for Latinx adults. Additionally, findings from the current review underscore the importance of re-evaluating and reforming policing practices to mitigate their adverse health effects on ethnic minority populations.

The minority threat theory emphasizes how stressors, such as police violence exposure, experienced by Latinx individuals can negatively impact their overall health (Blalock, 1967, Meyer, 2003). Given the prevalence of police violence exposure in the lives of some Latinx adults, future research should adopt a longitudinal design to examine how such exposure impacts health outcomes among a national sample of Latinx adults over time. This approach will facilitate the identification of long-term effects and trends that might not be immediately observable. Additionally, more research on various chronic health conditions and physical health outcomes associated with police violence exposure is warranted. Latinx adults are more likely to have diabetes, coronary heart disease, and cancer compared to their White counterparts (Fernandez, 2021). Finally, future research should examine the impact of police violence exposure on health outcomes by sociodemographic factors such as immigration and refugee status among Latinx adults, as findings could reveal critical insights into how different migration experiences influence the vulnerability and resilience of this population in the face of police violence exposure. Table 3 provides a summary of implications for future practice, policy, and research.

Table 3.

Implications for Practice, Policy, and Research.

Practice
• It should be standard practice for healthcare professionals to assess for exposure to police violence.
Policy
• Given the clear association between police violence exposure and adverse health outcomes in Latinx adults, the development of policies to mitigate these outcomes are needed.
Research
• Future research should use a longitudinal design to examine how exposure to police violence impact health outcomes among a national sample of Latinx adults over time.

Conclusions

Given the significant prevalence of fatal police violence exposure among Latinx adults and their reported mistrust toward law enforcement (GBD 2019 Police Violence US Subnational Collaborators, 2021; Luo et al., 2021), this review is essential for understanding the health implications of such experiences. It highlights the importance of identifying both the detrimental health consequences and the protective factors that affect the well-being of the growing Latinx adult population in the U.S. The review emphasizes the need for comprehensive research and action from healthcare professionals and policymakers to mitigate the mental, behavioral, and physical health effects of police violence on Latinx adults, ultimately aiming to improve their overall quality of life.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Robert O. Motley

Danielle T. Walker

Authors Biographies

Robert O. Motley Jr., PhD, is an Assistant Professor and Principal Investigator of the Racism-based Violence Injury and Prevent Lab in the School of Social Work at Boston College. His research examines the intersection of racism, violence, and trauma for Black emerging adults aged 18 to 29 and associated adverse mental and behavioral outcomes. Specifically, he looks to identify risk and protective factors that can be targeted by behavioral and mental health preventive and intervention programs.

Priti Patel, BA, is a Graduate Research Assistant at the Racism-based Violence Injury and Prevention Lab in the School of Social Work at Boston College. She is also a graduate student in the Lynch School of Education and Human Development at Boston College. As an aspiring psychotherapist, she has developed a passion for studying how cultural systems directly impact mental health outcomes and marital and family relationships, particularly across the South Asian diaspora.

HeeJoo Roh, BA, is a Graduate Research Assistant at the Racism-based Violence Injury and Prevention Lab in the School of Social Work at Boston College. She is also a master student for Mental Health and Counseling at Boston College Lynch School of Education and Human development. Her research focuses on trauma and mental health outcomes among ethnic minority populations and the inclusion of art in trauma-informed care.

Danielle T. Walker, MSN, PMHNP-BC, is a PhD candidate at Boston College Connell School of Nursing. Her research examines the impact of community violence exposure for Black emerging adults ages 18 to 29. She is interested in looking at the intersection of violence exposure and mental health diagnoses like schizophrenia.

References

Abreu

R. L.

Gonzalez

K. A.

Capielo Rosario

Lindley

Lockett

G. M.

(2021). “What American dream is this?”: The effect of Trump’s presidency on immigrant Latinx transgender people. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(6), 657–669. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000541

Alang

(2020). Police brutality and the institutional patterning of stressors. American Journal of Public Health, 110(11), 1597–1598. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305937

Alang

McAlpine

McClain

(2021). Police encounters as stressors: Associations with depression and anxiety across Race. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 7, 237802312199812. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023121998128

American Medical Association. (2023). What is behavioral health? Retrieved 5 December 2023, from https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/what-behavioral-health#:~:text=Behavioral%20health%20generally%20refers%20to,and%20treatment%20of%20those%20conditions

Anderson

R. E.

Stevenson

H. C.

(2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. The American Psychologist, 74(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392

Andrade

Ford

A. D.

Alvarez

(2021). Discrimination and Latino health: A systematic review of risk and resilience. Hispanic Health Care International: The Official Journal of the National Association of Hispanic Nurses, 19(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540415320921489

Blalock

1967. Towards a theory of minority-group relations. John Wiley.

Boyce

G. A.

(2020). Immigration, policing, and the politics of time. Geography Compass, 14(8), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12496

Cazenave

N. A.

(2018). Killing African Americans: Police and vigilante violence as a racial control mechanism. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.

10.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). About mental health. Retrieved December 13, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/learn/index.htm#:~:text=Mental%20health%20includes%20our%20emotional,others%2C%20and%20make%20healthy%20choices.&text=Mental%20health%20is%20important%20at,childhood%20and%20adolescence%20through%20adulthood.

11.

Chambliss

W. J.

Seidman

(1980). Law, order, and power. Addison-Wesley.

12.

Crockett

L. J.

Iturbide

M. I.

Torres Stone

R. A.

McGinley

Raffaelli

Carlo

(2007). Acculturative stress, social support, and coping: Relations to psychological adjustment among Mexican American college students. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(4), 347–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.4.347

13.

Dang

Dearholt

S. L.

(2017). Johns Hopkins nursing evidence-based practice: Model and guidelines (3rd ed.). Sigma Theta Tau International.

14.

Delgado

(2020). State-sanctioned violence: Advancing a social work and social justice agenda. Oxford University Press.

15.

DeVylder

J. E.

Anglin

D. M.

Bowleg

Fedina

Link

B. G.

(2022). Police violence and public health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 18, 527–552. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644

16.

DeVylder

Fedina

Link

(2020). Impact of police violence on mental health: A theoretical framework. American Journal of Public Health, 110(11), 1704–1710. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305874

17.

DeVylder

J. E.

Frey

J. J.

Cogburn

C. D.

Wilcox

H. C.

Sharpe

T. L.

H. Y.

Nam

Link

B. G.

(2017). Elevated prevalence of suicide attempts among victims of police violence in the USA. Journal of Urban Health, 94(5), 629–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0160-3

18.

DeVylder

J. E.

Jun

H.-J.

Fedina

Coleman

Anglin

Cogburn

Link

Barth

R. P.

(2018). Association of exposure to police violence with prevalence of mental health symptoms among urban residents in the United States. JAMA Network Open, 1(7), e184945. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4945

19.

DeVylder

J. E.

H. Y.

Nam

Sharpe

T. L.

Lehmann

Link

B. G.

(2017). Prevalence, demographic variation and psychological correlates of exposure to police victimisation in four US cities. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 26(5), 466–477. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796016000810

20.

Edwards

Lee

Esposito

(2019). Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race- ethnicity, and sex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(34), 16793–16798. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821204116

21.

Fernandez

M. L.

(2021). Lifestyle factors and genetic variants associated to health disparities in the Hispanic population. Nutrients, 13(7), 2189. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13072189

22.

Frost

D. M.

Meyer

I. H.

(2023). Minority stress theory: Application, critique, and continued relevance. Current Opinion in Psychology, 51, 101579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101579

23.

Funk

Lopez

M. H.

(2022). A brief statistical portrait of U.S. Hispanics. Retrieved December 5, 2023, from https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/06/14/a-brief-statistical-portrait-of-u-s-hispanics/

24.

GBD 2019 Police Violence US Subnational Collaborators. (2021). Fatal police violence by race and state in the USA, 1980–2019: A network meta-regression. The Lancet, 398, 10307. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01609-3

25.

Gonzalez-Guarda

R. M.

Stafford

A. M.

Nagy

G. A.

Befus

D. R.

Conklin

J. L.

(2021). A systematic review of physical health consequences and acculturation stress among Latinx individuals in the United States. Biological Research for Nursing, 23(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800420968889

26.

Gullett

L. R.

Alhasan

D. M.

Gaston

S. A.

Jackson

W. B.

Kawachi

Jackson

C. L.

(2022). Neighborhood social cohesion and serious psychological distress among Asian, Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and White adults in the United States: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 22, 1191. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13572-4

27.

Haile

Rowell-Cunsolo

Hyacinthe

M. F.

Alang

(2023). “We (still) charge genocide”: A systematic review and synthesis of the direct and indirect health consequences of police violence in the United States. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 322, 115784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115784

28.

Healthy People 2030. (n.d.). Crime and violence. https://health.gov/healthypeople/priority-areas/social-determinants-health/literature-summaries/crime-and-violence

29.

Hernández

R. J.

Villodas

M. T.

(2020). Overcoming racial battle fatigue: The associations between racial microaggressions, coping, and mental health among Chicana/o and Latina/o college students. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(3), 399–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000306

30.

Howard

L. C.

Krueger

E. A.

Barker

J. O.

Boley Cruz

Cwalina

S. N.

Unger

J. B.

Barrington-Trimis

J. L.

Leventhal

A. M.

(2023). Young adults’ distress about police brutality following the death of George Floyd. Youth & Society, 55(6), 1173–1190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X221087282

31.

Hyland

Langton

Davis

E. J.

(2015, November). Police use of nonfatal force, 2002–11 (Special Report NCJ 249216). U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/punf0211.pdf

32.

Krogstad

J. M.

Passel

J. S.

Moslimani

Noe-bustamante

(2023). Key facts about U.S. Latinos for national Hispanic heritage month. Retrieved December 7, 2023, from https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/22/key-facts-about-us-latinos-for-national-hispanic-heritage-month/#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20Hispanics%20made%20up,growth%20over%20the%20past%20decade.

33.

Lardier

D. T.

Jr MacDonnell

Barrios

V. R.

Garcia-Reid

Reid

R. J.

(2018). The moderating effect of neighborhood sense of community on predictors of substance use among Hispanic urban youth. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 17(4), 434–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2016.1273810

34.

Lazarus

R. S.

Folkman

(1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.

35.

Luo

Carey

M. T.

(2021). Trust in police: An exploratory study among Hispanic college students. Police Practice and Research, 22(7), 1679–1693. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2021.1874951

36.

Mattingly

D. T.

Howard

L. C.

Krueger

E. A.

Fleischer

N. L.

Hughes-Halbert

Leventhal

A. M.

(2022). Change in distress about police brutality and substance use among young people, 2017–2020. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 237, 109530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109530

37.

Meyer

I. H.

(2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674

38.

Motley

Baidoo

(2023). Racism and accountable policing for Black adults in the U.S. In Franklin

(Ed.), Encyclopedia of Social Work. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.1639

39.

Motley

R. O.

Jr. Chen

Y. C.

Motley

J. D.

(2023). Prevalence and correlates of adverse mental health outcomes among male and female black emerging adults with a history of exposure (direct versus indirect) to police use of force. Social Work Research, 47(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svad005

40.

Motley

R. O.

Jr. Finner

Walker

Joe

(2020, June). Accountable policing: Policies to advance the personal safety of Black boys and young men (Race and Opportunity Lab Brief Report No. 3). Washington University, Center for Social Development, Race and Opportunity Lab.

41.

Motley

R. O.

Joe

(2018). Police use of force by ethnicity, sex, and socioeconomic class. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 9, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.1086/696355

42.

National Institute of Justice. (1999). Measuring what matters. Department of Justice. Retrieved November 15, 2023, from https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/measuring-what-matters-proceedings-policing-research-institute-meetings

43.

Page

M. J.

McKenzie

J. E.

Bossuyt

P. M.

Boutron

Hoffmann

T. C.

Mulrow

C. D.

Shamseer

Tetzlaff

J. M.

Akl

E. A.

Brennan

S. E.

Chou

Glanville

Grimshaw

J. M.

Hróbjartsson

Lalu

M. M.

Loder

E. W.

Mayo-Wilson

McDonald

. . . Moher

(2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71.

44.

Parker

K. F.

MacDonald

J. M.

Jennings

W. G.

Alpert

G. P.

(2005). Racial threat, urban conditions and police use of force: Assessing the direct and indirect linkages across multiple urban areas. Justice Research and Policy, 7(1), 53–79. https://doi.org/10.3818/JRP.7.1.2005.53

45.

Piña-Watson

Romero

A. J.

Navarro

R. L.

Ojeda

(2019). Bicultural stress, coping, and psychological functioning among Mexican-descent and White college students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 75(7), 1249–1266. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22767

46.

Rogers

C. J.

Forster

Sussman

Steinberg

Barrington-Trimis

J. L.

Grigsby

T. J.

Unger

J. B.

(2023). The impact of childhood trauma on problematic alcohol and drug use trajectories and the moderating role of social support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 2829. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042829

47.

Rogers

C. J.

Pakdaman

Forster

Sussman

Grigsby

T. J.

Victoria

Unger

J. B.

(2022). Effects of multiple adverse childhood experiences on substance use in young adults: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 234, 109407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109407

48.

Salas-Hernández

DeVylder

J. E.

Cooper

H. L. F.

Duarte

dP Sewell

A. A.

Walker

E. R.

Haardörfer

(2022). Latent class profiles of police violence exposure in 4 US cities and their associations with anticipation of police violence and mental health Outcomes. Journal of Urban Health, 99(4), 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-022-00643-5

49.

Sewell

A. A.

(2017). The illness associations of police violence: Differential relationships by ethnoracial composition. Sociological Forum, 32(S1), 975–997. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12361

50.

Smith

M. E.

Sharpe

T. L.

Richardson

Pahwa

Smith

DeVylder

(2020). The impact of exposure to gun violence fatality on mental health outcomes in four urban U.S. settings. Social Science & Medicine, 246, 112587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112587

51.

Smith

Ferguson

C. J.

San Miguel

C. E.

Ynalvez

M. A.

Henderson

(2022). Social, health and ethnicity correlates of complaints of excessive police force. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 32(4), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2255

52.

Smith

W. A.

Yosso

T. J.

Solorzano

D. G.

(2006). Challenging racial battle fatigue on historically White campuses: A critical race examination of racerelated stress. In Stanley

C. A.

(Ed.), Faculty of color teaching in predominantly White colleges and universities (pp. 299–327). Anker.

53.

Stein

G. L.

Salcido

Gomez Alvarado

(2023). Resilience in the time of COVID-19: Familial processes, coping, and mental health in Latinx adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division, 53, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2022.2158838

54.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2022). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP22-07-01-005, NSDUH Series H-57). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2021-nsduh- annual-national-report

55.

United States Census Bureau. (2023). Hispanic heritage month: 2023. Retrieved November 28, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2023/hispanic-heritage-month.html#:~:text=63.7%20million,19.1%25%20of%20the%20total%20population

56.

Walsdorf

A. A.

Wagner

K. M.

Villatoro

Salgado

Snyder

V. N.

Garcia

Valdez

(2023). “It was really painful to watch:” Latinx young adults’ experiences of proximal and collective witnessing. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 11(4), 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000232

57.

Warren

Tomaskovic-Devey

Smith

Zingraff

Mason

(2006). Driving while Black: Bias processes and racial disparity in police stops. Criminology, 44(3), 709–738. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00061.x

58.

Weitzer

Tuch

S. A.

(2002). Perceptions of racial profiling: Race, class, and personal experience. Criminology, 40(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00962.x

59.

Whittemore

Knafl

(2005). The integrative review: Updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x

60.

Woods

R. C. C.

Chronister

K. M.

Perez-Grabow

Woods

W. E.

Woodlee

(2021). Racial Battle Fatigue: The Experiences of Black/African American, Biracial Black, and Multiracial Black Identified Graduate Students. Journal of Black Psychology, 47(4–5), 219–243. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984211002615

61.

World Health Organization. (2023). Social determinants of health. https://www.who.int/health-topics/social-determinants-ofhealth#tab=tab_1

62.

Wright

A. W.

Austin

Booth

(2017). Systematic Review: Exposure to Community Violence and Physical Health Outcomes in Youth. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 42(4), 364–378. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsw088