Abstract
Separate examinations of emotional intelligence (EI) and mentoring reveal their career-enhancing potential, yet little research exists connecting the two. Emotionally intelligent people have an increased likelihood of having and maintaining successful relationships, and mentored professionals achieve higher levels of position, pay, and career satisfaction. The purpose of this review is to systematically review existing literature to illustrate how EI affects the mentoring relationship and influences its effectiveness for both the mentor and protégé. Questions guiding this research include the following: (a) What potential connections between EI and mentoring exist? and (b) How might these connections inform mentoring theory and practice? This review explicitly connects EI and mentoring literatures to show theoretical and practical synergies that are applicable to mentors, protégés, research, and practice. The article concludes with a proposed model of “emotionally intelligent mentoring” (EIM).
Keywords
Mentoring is a developmental relationship that traditionally occurs between a more experienced individual (the mentor) and a less experienced individual (the protégé), which involves close interpersonal interactions and focuses on the protégé’s career options and progress. Emotional intelligence (EI) is grounded in Thorndike’s early 20th-century concept of social intelligence defined as the ability to function successfully in interpersonal situations. Gardner (1983) also described alternative forms of intelligence, including the interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Although interest in emotion began with Thorndike and Gardner, it was not until 1989 that Salovey and Mayer coined the term emotional intelligence. We contend that linking mentoring and EI results in more powerful career development and progress.
The degree to which one shares her or his emotions (a dimension of EI) is related to learning and mentoring success (Liu, Xu, & Weitz, 2011). Kram (1985) suggested that interpersonal skills may influence the initiation and development of mentoring relationships. Interpersonal and socially relevant attributes and abilities make up many of the characteristics originally defined as EI by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Emotions shape social interactions (Fineman, 1993), and as such, it seems that a process such as mentoring, with interpersonal and social interaction at its core, should be analyzed through the lens of emotions. Developmental relationships, such as mentoring, play a key role in upward career progression and can be enhanced by better understanding the linkages between mentoring and EI. A critical key to mentoring success is missing without understanding how EI affects the mentoring relationship.
How might differences in the levels of EI possessed by the mentor or protégé influence the outcome of the mentoring relationship? How might EI moderate mentoring? Is it possible that mentoring might further enhance the EI of those involved in the mentoring relationship? These questions form the basis of this research. The purpose of this article is to systematically review existing literature to illustrate how EI affects the mentoring relationship and influences its effectiveness for both the mentor and protégé. Questions guiding this research include the following:
Method
The goal of identifying linkages between EI and mentoring was accomplished through the use of a systematic literature review, which Tranfield, Denyer, and Smart (2003) suggested will “improve the quality of the review process by synthesizing research in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible manner” (p. 209).
Identifying the review question (Step 1) is critical to systematic review, because other aspects of the process flow from it (Tranfield et al., 2003). The main review question examines the potential connections between EI and mentoring, providing a foundation for further theory development and a new framework enabling a deeper understanding of emotionally intelligent mentoring (EIM).
This research lays the foundation for questions the authors ultimately want to answer, including
Is it a difference in the level of EI of the mentor or mentee that influences the extent of the positive or negative outcome of the mentoring relationship, that is, is EI a moderator in the effectiveness of mentoring?
Is it possible that mentoring can further enhance the EI of those involved in the mentoring relationship?
The process of identifying relevant work (Step 2) involved a search of business-related online databases using a broad search with keywords “emotional intelligence” and “mentoring,” including only scholarly, peer-reviewed articles from journals generally regarded at least a “C”-level journal in rankings. Care was taken to ensure representation from an interdisciplinary framework, as both areas, especially mentoring, have been studied in the fields of human resources management, human resource development, management, and psychology. This helped to obtain a broad perspective and decrease potential bias in selecting articles written by authors whose names sounded familiar.
Those studies selected (Step 3) were those that, after assessed for quality, were determined to be methodologically sound and informative. The next step (Step 4) included review and data synthesis, followed by summarizing the history and key concepts of each area: EI and mentoring. After we reviewed theoretical and conceptual aspects of both areas, we drew connections between the literatures, specifically around aspects of mentoring involving emotional connections. Interpreting the findings (Step 5) was followed by examination of the implications associated with applying this perspective toward the development of successful mentoring relationships. In the final section of this article, we offer a model of EIM.
Thus, this theoretical article provides the opportunity to examine mentoring relationships from an emotions lens, to illuminate any links between EI of both the mentor and the protégé, with the success of the relationship. Although theoretical and exploratory, this research will propel further empirical investigation into EI as a potential moderator of mentoring relationships that has barely been addressed in the mentoring literature, and it will propose the concept of EIM.
EI
This section reviews the key theoretical precepts and research on EI. It defines EI, introduces a mixed model perspective, and examines implications of emotion in the workplace.
Defining EI
Bar-On (1988) developed the EQ (Emotional Quotient) Test, the term emotional intelligence was coined by Salovey and Mayer in 1990, and was later popularized by Goleman (1995). Salovey and Mayer defined EI as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action” (p. 189).
The literature often associates the term emotional intelligence with Goleman’s (1995) trait-oriented definition: knowing emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. Elsewhere, his definition includes self-awareness, impulse control, delay of gratification, handling stress and anxiety, and empathy and is subsequently broken down into 25 different emotional competencies—cause for some to argue that Goleman’s all-inclusive definition is not scientific and describes personality traits rather than intelligence and/or ability (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).
Mayer et al. (2000) argued that EI integrates psychological processes including the appraisal and expression of emotions, assimilation of emotions in thoughts, understanding, regulating, and managing emotions. The authors distinguish between their definition of EI as an ability versus a set of personality traits (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer et al., 2000; Salovey & Mayer, 1990, 1994).
Bar-On (1997) characterized EI as “an array of noncognitive abilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures” (p. 14). There still remains a big divide regarding the definition of EI as an ability or a collection of traits, and clarifying the definition is important to distinguish the pertinent research and determine validity (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008). Table 1 illustrates the three streams of EI, as defined by the authors who first presented it within their framework of ability, trait, or a mixed model definition of EI.
Three Streams of Definitions of Emotional Intelligence.
Source. Opengart (2005, p. 51).
Note. EQ = emotional quotient.
Mixed model perspective of EI
This research interprets EI through the mixed model perspective. Although some have argued that these models are overly broad and have strayed from the core constructs of emotion and intelligence (Mayer et al., 2008), other research has indicated that the trait models are most “guilty” of that. Although the mixed model (EQi assessment; Bar-On, 1997) showed significant correlation with personality variables, that does not necessarily reduce its validity and may be a reflection of it being a self-report assessment. Thus, the mixed model approach can be a valuable model, but perhaps using non self-report measures would be the methodology of choice (Webb et al., 2013). This mixed model perspective is appropriate because it incorporates previously identified elements important to mentoring success, including emotional and social skills, applied both interpersonally and intrapersonally.
Salovey and Mayer (1990), Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan, & Adler (1998), and Bar-On (1997) have each made important contributions to our understanding of EI. To better understand how EI might apply to mentoring, we have arranged key points of their definitions into a four-point mixed perspective model that is particularly poignant when thinking about mentoring relationships. These points include EI and the self, EI and others, integration of EI into thought, and assimilation of EI into action and are summarized in Table 2.
Mixed Model Perspective of EI.
Note. EI = emotional intelligence.
Understanding EI and the self
A significant aspect of EI is awareness and management of the self. Cherniss’ et al. (1998) model focuses on self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation. These self-insights translate into the ability to adapt (Bar-On, 1997) and manage the self effectively during emotional moments (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Effective self-management entails awareness of emotional state and the ability to learn from interpersonal interactions. Emotionally intelligent people can increase the likelihood of having and maintaining successful relationships because they can use emotions as a tool for improving social and interpersonal effectiveness in their environment (Kunnanatt, 2004). Lopes et al. (2004) found positive relationships between the ability to manage emotions and the quality of social interactions, as did Lopes, Salovey, Cote, Beers, and Petty (2005) when the authors examined whether emotion regulation abilities, measured on a test of EI, were related to several indicators of the quality of individuals’ social interactions with peers. (Both of the Lopes et al. studies controlled for personality traits.) This would indicate that high EI facilitates social interactions, enabling a protégé to interact well with a mentor and in the workplace and vice versa.
Respecting EI and others
It is difficult to effectively engage with others if self-management of emotions is lacking. Emotional abilities are important for social interaction because emotions serve communicative and social functions, convey information about people’s thoughts and intentions, and coordinate social encounters (Keltner & Haidt, 2001; Lopes et al., 2004).
Once mentors or protégés have mastered EI on a personal level, they are ready to develop deeper understanding of others’ emotions. This occurs through social awareness (Cherniss et al., 1998) and intrapersonal and interpersonal EQ (Bar-On, 1997). Possessing keen awareness of the emotional state of others helps both the mentor and protégé decide how to engage with each other. Mentors can gauge emotional states of protégés and question them about observed stress, anger, frustration, excitement, and so forth. The capacity to tune into others’ emotions also helps mentors be more empathic and effective. Protégés can also tune into their mentors’ emotions and reactions to their presence and emotional states.
Integrating EI into thought
EI includes complex processes that integrate emotion and cognition (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The ability to reflect on emotion regarding self and others is the process of integrating EI into thought. This occurs with developing capacity to process information and reason with emotion, perceive emotions, and understand emotions (Cherniss et al., 1998). Engaging in reflection on one’s emotional state both during and after an interaction are key aspects of EI. Mayer and Salovey (1997) suggested that emotions enter the cognitive system, and after being recognized and labeled, the emotions alter thought. Insights from these reflections shape future interactions and influence learning from mentoring relationships. This might take the form of a mentor reflecting on how her interactions affected the protégé and adjusting her approach in future mentoring sessions or vice versa.
Assimilating EI into action
The integration of EI into thought and awareness of self and others is then assimilated into action. This occurs through emotion management (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), social skills (Cherniss et al., 1998), and adaptation, stress management, and mood control (Bar-On, 1997). The phenomenon of emotion is in fact relevant to studies of social contexts (Putnam & Mumby, 1993) such as the workplace. In the organizational behavior literature, affective events theory (AET) explains the importance of emotions in the workplace, describing emotional states as central to employee attitudes and behavior (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). The increased research and attention to emotions support the notion that emotions are inseparable from everyday organizational life (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995), shape social transactions, and contribute to organizational structure and culture (Fineman, 1993).
EI and affect are potential influences of job performance (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000; Cherniss, 2000; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Goleman, 1998; Reio & Callahan, 2004) and conflict management. Lopes et al. (2011) looked at conflict management in relationships and confirmed the importance of being able to evaluate emotional situations and identify effective responses. Results suggest that situational judgment and the ability to select the best response in a situation may be helpful in managing conflicts with others. This would apply to conflicts that arise within a mentoring relationship. DeVaney, Sepulveda, Anderson, Craun, and Barchard (2012) found that emotion perception was related to intimacy and nurturance and that conflict and antagonism correlated negatively with emotion perception—an additional finding indicating the importance of emotional skills in interactions and relationships. Putting EI into action might take the form of offering support when you can see another person is distressed or identifying their emotional state by comments such as “You appear to be stressed today. Tell me about it.”
Research has revealed incongruencies between assertions made by proponents of EI and (Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2004) some studies demonstrating negative results, whereby EI correlated little with performance-based measures (Janovics & Christiansen, 2001). One possible explanation for the inconsistencies and controversy can be obtained by Cote and Miner’s (2006) finding that EI did predict job performance when cognitive intelligence was low. Thus, employees with low cognitive intelligence can improve performance if they are high in EI, and people with differing cognitive levels can utilize and benefit from EI in varying levels.
Although these results are plausible, more recent studies indicated positive relationships between EI and job performance. Joseph and Newman (2010) tested the incremental validity of EI in three categories—performance-based, self-report ability measures, and self-report mixed models—and found that all three types of measures demonstrated incremental validity over and above personality traits and above cognitive ability. Another study found that all three main streams of EI research (i.e., ability-based, self-reports based on the ability models, and mixed models) correlated with job performance (O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2011). Given these findings showing a positive relationship between EI and job performance, we add mentoring as a key vehicle to enhancing job performance through relationships.
Mentoring
Managing one’s career today is not just a matter of keeping up with technical skills and a chosen field. It means keeping pace with exponentially increasing knowledge, incessant technological advancement, expectations for 24 × 7 accessibility, withstanding organization uncertainty or collapse, negotiating organization politics, and doing it all faster and better than others in an increasingly complex, competitive global environment. One strategy for negotiating the challenging world of work is mentoring, where generally a more seasoned professional helps guide a more novice protégé through career challenges, development, and decisions.
Mentoring is an important career development resource that facilitates the process of socialization into an organization or profession and can enhance and develop a protégé, contributing to higher job satisfaction and self-esteem (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & Lima, 2004). Individuals who receive mentoring attain promotions, higher salaries, better support networks, and greater satisfaction than those who do not (Dreher & Cox, 1996; Eby & McManus, 2004). Potential benefits of mentoring exist not only for the mentored employee but also for the mentor and the organization (Allen et al., 2004; Eby, Durley, Evans, & Ragins, 2006). This section defines mentoring, identifies phases of the mentoring relationship, and raises mentoring problems.
Defining mentoring
How mentoring is defined varies somewhat in the literature (Haggard, Dougherty, Turban, & Wilbanks, 2011; Kram, 1988). Mentoring definitions range from developmental relationships, one-time career sponsorship, to coaching, to a committed, long-term, mutually beneficial formal relationship. A formal mentoring program has been defined as an organizationally sanctioned learning relationship where mentors share knowledge to advance the career of a newer employee (Wanberg, Welsh, & Hezlett, 2003).
Mentoring has also been described as enabling protégés to receive two types of support from their mentors: career and psychosocial (Allen, Eby, O’Brien, & Lentz, 2008; Kram, 1983). Although Zey’s (1984) definition of a mentor is somewhat inclusive, someone “who oversees the career and development of another person, usually a junior, through teaching, counseling, providing psychological support, protecting, and at times promoting or sponsoring” (p. 7), Kram’s (1980) is more broad, describing both career and psychosocial support and phases of mentoring. Kram described career support as offering protégés the skills needed for career advancement and the opportunity for challenging and visible assignments. Psychosocial support was described as including role modeling, confirmation, and counseling.
Phases of mentoring relationships
Kram’s (1983, 1985) definition of mentoring included proposing four phases to a mentoring relationship: initiation, cultivation, separation, and redefinition. The initiation phase lasts 6 to 12 months and is the expectation-setting phase. The cultivation phase can be from 2 to 5 years and typically involves protégés receiving a wide range of career and psychosocial guidance. During the separation phase, the protégé becomes increasingly autonomous, and in the redefinition phase, the mentor and protégé begin to see each other as peers.
The fact that definitions and focus of study in mentoring have evolved significantly over time was described well by Haggard et al. (2011). The authors suggested that the construct of mentoring has changed since the initial influential work in the early 1980’s by Kram. They summarized the development and change in focus of mentoring research over a period of decades, pointing out trends that have varied over time. They reviewed varying definitions of a mentor over the previous 20 years and the implications of those variations in definition and asserted that although numerous definitions have been utilized over time, three common attributes—reciprocity (mutuality of exchange), regular consistent interaction over some period of time, and developmental benefits (tied to the protégé’s career)—distinguish mentoring relationships. The authors also differentiated between being in a mentoring relationship versus receiving mentoring functions, whereby an individual might receive mentoring functions, yet the relationship does not qualify for being considered a mentoring relationship (Haggard et al., 2011).
This research focuses its application on the first two phases of mentoring as described by Kram, initiation and cultivation, and on how the concept and measurement of EI may be an opportunity for prevention and/or improvement of negative mentoring. These are the phases and areas where we propose that emotional and social skills, applied both interpersonally and intrapersonally, are most likely to positively or negatively affect the success and positivity of the mentoring relationship.
Mentoring problems
Mentoring relationships are not always positive. They can have less than optimal consequences, becoming destructive and dysfunctional, resulting in negative effects on attitudes and performance (Eby & McManus, 2004; Kram, 1985; Scandura, 1998). They can also replicate patriarchy and be available only to employees who conform to the organization’s stereotypical leader (typically White males; Hansman, 2002a).
Certain aspects of this connection between emotion and the initiation and cultivation of mentoring relationships have already had some research support. Eby and McManus (2004) concluded that individuals in ineffective relationships have positive intentions toward each other, but the relationship is impaired due to interpersonal difficulties. Further confirmation of those findings came from Wu, Turban, and Hong (2012), who concluded that social skills of both the mentor and protégé influence mentoring effectiveness, particularly for dysfunctional mentoring relationships. Other authors have suggested that to improve interpersonal functioning and have a successful mentoring relationship, it is important to have mutual respect, trust, social awareness, self-awareness, social skills, confidentiality, common expectations, honesty, equality, and political astuteness (Clutterbuck, 2004; Hansman, 2002b; Murphy & Kram, 2014), many aspects of which are related to EI.
The acknowledgment of mentoring as anything less than positive has caused researchers to adopt a more critical lens toward mentoring. Not until 1998 did Scandura argue that little is written about negative outcomes that may occur within mentoring relationships and what those outcomes might be. Scandura (1998) suggested that although negative mentoring relationships may not occur frequently, the destructive consequences might be quite detrimental. Negative emotions and behaviors from dysfunctional mentoring relationships may include aggressiveness, spoiling, envy, betrayal, abuse of power, psychological abuse, unresolved conflicts, over-dependence, deception, bullying, and jealousy (Ghosh, Dierkes & Falletta, 2011; Eby & McManus, 2004; Ghosh, Dierkes, & Falletta, 2011; Scandura, 1998; Scandura & Pellegrini, 2007).
EIM
Our review of the literature reveals that there could be much more research and discussion connecting mentoring and EI, though what is there indicates a link between the quality of mentoring relationships and EI (Brechtel, 2004; Grewal & Salovey, 2005). This systematic literature review has focused on EI and mentoring literatures. This section melds these streams into the concept of EIM. This section defines EIM, illustrates how core mentoring functions are aided by EI, and proposes a model of EIM.
Defining EIM
We are steeped in emotion at work: elation over recognition or finishing a difficult task, dread over a meeting, anger at a colleague for stealing our ideas, befuddlement about office politics, stress over organization downsizing, anxiousness over a presentation, joy at the end of the workweek, etc.; these are all emotional responses. How we manage each of these and perceive emotions in others is influenced by EI. Many office mantras sound something similar to “let’s keep our feelings to ourselves” or “don’t get emotional,” yet shelving our emotional life is easier said than done. And emotions may be an important aspect of work behavior of which mentors should take note. Furthermore, we now know that emitting emotions and having EI can actually support an employee’s career development.
Mentoring has been described as an intense emotional relationship (Baum, 1992). Without the ability to handle the intensity, the relationship will not likely advance beyond the first stage. Mentoring can be exhilarating and rewarding for the mentor when the process goes well, the relationship works, and the protégé is successful. It can also evoke shame or anxiety over past failures or regrets. Mentoring may also cause frustration and anger toward the protégé when he or she is not listening to the mentor’s advice or performing to the expectations. Given all the emotions involved, one might conclude that effective mentors possess a high level of EI to not only manage their own emotions but also to model, monitor, and respond to the emotional states of protégés.
Given the important role that highly developed EI can play in mentoring relationships, we offer the following definition that melds the EI and mentoring literature into EIM:
Emotionally intelligent mentoring (EIM) is an intense, mutually beneficial developmental relationship between a mentor and protégé that depends upon and expands emotional and social skills in ways that inform thought and action, benefit the self and others, and result in career learning and advancement.
The next sections provide breakdowns of the definition’s key components and illustrate their meaning and connection with the literature.
EIM is an intense, mutually beneficial developmental relationship
Effective mentoring depends on a mutual exchange between the mentor and protégé that is built on trust and openness and is sustained for as long as the mentoring relationship is needed. The relationship is intensely emotional and must sustain the intensity level to develop into productive mentoring (Baum, 1992). These are key ingredients to building a productive mentoring relationship. Building trust and mutuality requires that both parties have well-developed awareness of the emotional state of self and others, transparency of emotions, along with the capacity to keep individual emotions in check. Powerful mentoring relationships are also intense: They do not shy away from challenging issues or conversations. Yet the intensity never overshadows the mutual beneficence of the relationship.
A more recent paradigm of mentoring illustrates the mutual and reciprocal nature of mentoring relationships for positive outcomes and how the mentor’s and the protégé’s personality characteristics combine to influence mentoring effectiveness (Ragins & Kram, 2007a). The ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions is likely to affect whether one is engaged in a mentoring relationship to begin with, along with influencing the effectiveness of that relationship. EIM assumes that benefits of the mentoring relationship are mutual. That is, both the mentor and protégé learn and grow from the affiliation.
Emotional engagement of both the mentor and the protégé is necessary for a successful relationship (Higgins & Kram, 2001; Sosik & Lee, 2002), and the mentoring relationship “is inherently reciprocal and interdependent” (Chun, Litzky, Sosik, Bechtold, & Godshalk, 2010, p. 428). The more intimate the relationship and the more anxiety inherent in the relationship, whether due to vulnerability or differences between mentor and protégé, the more critical is the need for EI (Allen, Day, & Lentz, 2005; Fletcher & Ragins, 2007). A protégé’s EI can have a significant effect on the success of a mentoring relationship, because it can facilitate the relationship in multiple ways, including expressiveness, responsiveness, and enthusiasm (Grewal & Salovey, 2005; Young & Perrewe, 2004).
EIM depends on and expands emotional and social skills of the mentor and protégé
Following the contention that emotions shape interactions (Fineman, 1993) and can be a tool for improving social and interpersonal effectiveness (Kunnanatt, 2004), we maintain that skills referred to in the literature as social, relational, and emotional are all subsumed under the concept of EI and that applying and extending research of the importance of social and interpersonal skills to EI actually serve to strengthen the research and understanding of mentoring relationships. This understanding may provide critical information to understand how to effectively move through the initial stages of mentoring and how to avoid negative mentoring relationships.
Using emotional and social skills in the mentoring relationship means awareness of self and others exists and that such insight is applied during the mentoring process. Effective use of these skills results in more productive mentoring exchanges and the development of trust. Moore and Mamiseishvili (2012) argued for the importance of being aware of one’s own emotions in relation to cohesion (an initial stage of mentoring, Kram, 1983, 1985). They defined awareness based on Jordan and Lawrence’s (2009) definition of “emotions as the ability of an individual to know his or her feelings in the moment, and having the ability to reflect, discuss, and disclose those to others” (p. 297). Similarly, Wolff, Pescosolido, and Druskat (2002) found that individuals with high awareness of emotions have less intense emotional reactions and communicate more effectively in teams. Applying these findings to mentoring seems like a logical step, as emotional awareness and cohesion between mentor and protégé would be critical to a successful relationship, especially in the first two phases of initiation and cohesion (Kram, 1983, 1985) when expectations are being set and guidance is crucial. Emotional and social skills continue to be important throughout the mentoring relationship as the intensity increases and the focus is on the development, learning, and advancement of the protégé.
Cremona (2010) explored coaching and whether coaches responded to their own and clients’ emotions and found that coaches vary their approaches for exploring emotion in both clients and themselves. This might involve acknowledging emotion, pointing out observations about emotional responses, noticing their emotions as coaches, and commenting about body language. Cremona found that ease with discussing emotions determined how much coaches addressed them in the relationship. Grewal and Salovey (2005) found that those who scored high on the “managing emotions” section of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) were perceived by friends as more supportive and caring. These studies do suggest that emotions can greatly influence the success of the mentoring relationship.
Past research in mentoring has cited factors that may be considered similar to the concept of EI. For example, mentors are more likely to select a protégé based on their perceived cognitive ability/potential than on the person’s actual need for help (Allen, 2004; Allen, Poteet, & Russell, 2000; Welsh & Wanberg, 2009). Mentors are also more likely to be selected if they are more experienced members who are presumed to hold higher abilities and positive attitudes (Blake-Beard, O’Neill, & McGowan, 2007; Ragins & Kram, 2007a). Or they may be selected because they are likable or similar in nature to a potential mentor. Mentors in relationships with others perceived to be similar reported the mentorship to be of higher quality, with greater learning than did mentors in relationships with less similar protégés (Allen & Eby, 2003). Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, and Buckley (2003) found that individuals considered emotionally intelligent have “strong relationships and a solid team support system” (p. 30). They proposed that “the level of . . . cohesion is dependent on the degree of a team members’ EI” (p. 31). These strong relationships and cohesion directly apply to skills needed for a successful mentoring relationship. Chun et al. (2010) confirmed an affective perspective of developmental relationships. They found a complementary interaction effect whereby mentors’ EI was positively related to their provision of mentoring, both directly and indirectly through the trust in their protégés.
We further suggest that trust is especially critical in the first two phases of the mentoring relationship, because without trust, the protégé will not be able to be honest and open and receive guidance. Mentors need to be able to accurately appraise their protégés and understand their emotions. Having high EI should enable them to better connect with their protégés (Lankau & Scandura, 2002) and successfully advance from Phase 1 to Phase 2 (Kram, 1983, 1985).
Just as Thelwell, Lane, Weston, and Greenlees (2008) argued that the key aspects of EI, such as detecting the emotional states of others, and managing emotions based on the situation are fundamental for a coach’s effectiveness, so to, we would argue the same for a mentor Mentors are usually role models for their protégés. What are the emotional aspects of being a role model? How do mentors help protégés deal with anxiety and stress and other negative emotions that occur during the career span? It has been suggested that mentors with EI might be more effective at managing potential anxiety and intimacy of a mentoring relationship (Cherniss, 2007).
EIM informs thought and action
The experience of mentoring provides the opportunity for both the mentor and protégé to reflect on ideas and behaviors, learn from them, and modify future thought and action accordingly. Liu et al. (2011), in a study of new interns, found that those interns who openly shared their emotions succeeded in proactively shaping their internship experiences to be more positive. Those interns who masked their emotional expression or who showed negative emotions indicated less learning and a less positive mentoring experience. This suggests a connection between emotions, quality of interpersonal interactions, learning, and mentoring. We would take this notion a step further by suggesting that willingness to explore emotions opens the opportunity for critical thinking that informs future action and likely better outcomes for the protégé. Mentors can help protégés reflect on their actions through dialogue and questioning about thought and action. They might help protégés align their emotions with their actions (Moberg, 2008), as well as give assignments and connect protégés with other professionals experiencing the same challenges.
A study on EI and sports coaching revealed significant relationships between EI and coaching efficacy. Thelwell et al. (2008) suggested that coaches are responsible for developing athletes and that coaches need to maintain their own psychological and emotional levels. Assuming that EI contributes to performance in one environment, that it may do the same in another, the authors had 99 coaches complete the Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998) to determine whether coaching efficacy increased in relation to coaches’ EI.
Barkham (2005) had several recommendations for how to be a successful protégé, including be open and honest, be prepared to listen and reflect, respect advice, continue to question your mentor and other colleagues, be prepared to ask for help, be sympathetic to others’ problems in your workplace, be prepared to offer fresh ideas, be prepared to work hard, network, and enjoy the new life. These suggestions imply skills inherent in EI.
EIM benefits the self and others
Both the mentor and protégé can benefit from the developmental relationship. So can others they come into contact with in work and life. When embarking on a mentoring relationship, what does the protégé feel? Barkham (2005) suggested that the protégé may feel disoriented, disconcerted, bewildered, inadequate, and vulnerable, not wanting to burden anyone. Having EI would likely enable the protégé to manage these feelings, explore them, learn from them, and benefit from them. Similarly, a mentor with EI will better be able to anticipate and address such emotions in the protégé, which in turn makes her a better mentor and person. In Barkham’s experience, she found comfort in her mentor’s knowledge, insight, and nonjudgmental demeanor. Her mentor’s behavior lead to ready trust and allowed the relationship to develop. In fact, friendship has been determined important to the success of mentoring relationships (Mullen, 2006), which occurs at a late stage of an effective mentoring relationship.
EIM results in career learning and advancement
The final aspect of our definition of EIM is that mentoring provides learning and growth to both the protégé and mentor. “Relational mentoring theory” (Ragins, Lyness, & Winkel, 2010) refers to the mutually interdependent, empathic, and empowering processes that create personal growth, development, and enrichment for mentors and protégés (Ragins & Verbos, 2007). Moberg (2008) charged that the mentoring literature tends to focus on instrumental aspects of the process such as technical, social, and political lessons while ignoring the mentor’s role in moral and ethical education of the protégé. He makes several propositions for character development through mentoring, with emotion being one of the key aspects. In a similar vein, Woullard and Coats (2004) determined that a pre-service mentoring program influenced undergraduate students’ emotions toward the teaching profession and found significant differences in attitudinal changes from exposure to master teachers. Bennetts (2002) suggested that mentors utilize emotions, display emotional maturity, and draw on their EI to be effective.
EI and emotional competencies exhibited by a person show how much of that potential he or she has and supports the learning of job-related skills (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001). EI predicts success in multiple domains, among them personal and work relationships (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). This should extend to the relationship between mentor and protégé as well.
How core mentoring functions Are aided by EI
This review makes the case for EIM as a highly effective developmental relationship that provides mutual benefit to the protégé and mentor. The matrix in Table 3 illustrates key points about how low and high levels of EIM might affect a mentor and protégé, and thus the initiation and cultivation phases of the mentoring relationship within the context of our mixed model interpretation of EI. The critical takeaway is that the abilities of both the mentor and the protégé in perceiving, understanding, and managing emotions in themselves and others should greatly impact their social interaction with each other, and thus the effectiveness of the mentoring relationship. Many of the helpful aspects listed in the table will apply directly to the first two phases, initiation and cultivation, of the mentoring relationship. In addition, the EI levels of both the protégé and mentor could potentially increase as a result of their relationship, requiring and practicing and reinforcing the very skills needed to be successful as a mentor and as a protégé.
Low and High EIM and Their Impact on the Mentoring Relationship.
Note. EIM = emotionally intelligent mentoring.
A model of EIM
At the heart of mentoring is relationship—the social interactions and the rapport between a mentor and a protégé. The mentoring relationship must be mutual and successful for the mentoring itself to be effective. Mentoring relationships thrive when both parties have skill at perceiving, understanding, and managing emotions of self and others. Given the link between EI and social interactions, and the fact that mentoring requires social interaction and a relationship, we have proposed EIM, where successful mentoring requires EI and effective use of emotions and social skills.
The EIM perspective portrays how the EI of both the mentor and the protégé are important and influence mentoring effectiveness. This may result from many factors related to EI, potentially including openness to mentoring, increased learning capacity, ability to trust, self-awareness, ability to respond to feedback, and the increased practice and further development of these skills. Most clearly, the literature points to social skills inherent in EI. Table 4 illustrates four different mentoring relationships based on the levels of EI and mentoring relational skills. Each quadrant will be discussed.
Emotional Intelligence and Mentoring Relational Skills Matrix.
What does mentoring look like when one or both parties lack EI, relational ability, or both? The EIM model examines different types of mentoring interactions according to the level of EI and mentoring relational skills, based on the literature we have covered showing that both high EI and mentoring relational skills lead to better outcomes in mentoring relationships. The model examines four different mentoring dynamics that occur when one or both the mentor and protégé exhibit certain characteristics related to EI and relational skills that include nonproductive mentoring, emotive mentoring, relational mentoring, and productive mentoring. They are summarized in Table 4.
Nonproductive mentoring
When one or more individuals in the mentoring dyad falls into the “nonproductive” quadrant, the mentoring relationship may be at risk and the results inconsistent or poor with low EI and relational skills at play. Nonproductive mentoring is characterized by the inability to correctly gauge emotional states or effectively manage the relationship. Emotions may be unmanaged or mismanaged. When emotions are not managed, individuals are susceptible to “emotional hijacking” or allowing themselves to be carried away with emotion. This could result in ignoring, misperceiving, misunderstanding, or exaggerating emotions. For example, if a protégé arrives for a mentoring session looking disheveled, stressed, and tired, the nonproductive mentor may fail to tune into these cues and overlook issues contributing to the protégé’s frazzled state. It is also likely that the mentor in this case may mismanage emotions by not listening or failing to make adjustments to accommodate the emotional state of the protégé. Nonproductive mentoring is also characterized by low relational skills, meaning that mentors may be ineffective at providing career and psychological support typifying effective mentoring that incorporates role modeling, confirmation, and counseling. Protégés may lack relational skills and have difficulty opening up and trusting their mentor. They may also be unable or unwilling to express emotion or read that of the mentor’s. Or they may become so emotionally stimulated, they cannot reason or learn about career situations and encounters. When nonproductive behaviors are exhibited, it makes initiating and cultivating new mentoring relationships difficult, particularly because they inhibit reciprocity, regular and consistent interaction, and the developmental benefits that are shown to distinguish effective mentoring relationships (Haggard et al., 2011). Trust will also be difficult to build when one or both of the mentoring pair is in the nonproductive state.
Relational mentoring
Relational mentoring occurs when the protégé, mentor, or both lack well-developed EI skills but have high relational abilities. This may signal that the individual(s) are not tuned into the emotional signals being sent by the other individual but are good at cultivating relationships—building trust, mutuality, and encouraging learning and development. Just as with the nonproductive mentoring, the mentor may miss or ignore emotional cues and focus instead on the task of helping the protégé achieve stated goals. The mentoring will likely be consistent, fun, friendly, and productive but may lack depth and the ability to address more challenging and enduring issues. In some ways, relational mentoring may be “going through the motions” of mentoring without ever risking emotional exposure or vulnerability. The relational skills allow the mentoring relationship to be initiated and cultivated but may stall at separation and redefinition and fail to help the protégé make key career transitions and transformations.
Emotive mentoring
Emotive mentoring is characterized by highly developed EI with correspondingly low relational skills. Participants may be highly tuned in to emotional states but less capable of articulating them or building strong, productive working relationships, especially when emotions are high. These mentoring relationships may also risk becoming over-focused on emotions and exaggerating them, rather than focusing on relational consequences or next steps. For example, if a protégé is angry with a colleague, the mentor may focus too much on the emotion. When energies are focused on emotion, the mentor may not push the protégé to learn from the experience or take necessary steps to address the situation. The emotive focus might cause the protégé or mentor to take things too personally and be unable to separate themselves from the issue or key lesson at hand. Highly emotive mentors may not provide effective role modeling, instead getting too caught up in emotional analysis to be helpful.
Productive mentoring
Productive mentoring melds highly developed EI with effective mentoring relational skills, creating the conditions for EIM. This type of mentoring results in a mutually beneficial relationship that results in learning and development for both the protégé and mentor. The mixed model perspective of EI is evident where the mentor and protégé are attuned to the emotional states of themselves and others, integrate EI into thought, and assimilate EI into action. This type of mentoring is characterized by accurate emotional gauging. This is especially important on behalf of the mentor who can teach the protégé how to do it if this skill is underdeveloped. Productive mentoring conforms to our definition of EIM based on its intensity, mutuality, and developmental benefits. Both the protégé and mentor experience improved emotional and social skills as a result of the relationship, and the mentoring becomes a powerful influencer of thought and action, especially on the part of the protégé. The mentoring benefits not only the mentor and protégé but also others they interact with on a regular basis. Finally, both the protégé and mentor benefit from ongoing learning that benefits their careers.
In all cases, it is more important for the mentor to come to the relationship with effective EI and mentoring relational skills because part of the role is to educate protégés in such behaviors. When they are absent or underdeveloped in the mentor, the mentoring outcomes will be lower. When they are present, the mentoring relationship is poised to be productive and effective.
Discussion and Implications
It is clear that developmental relationships such as mentoring may play a key role in career success by helping employees learn essential knowledge at their workplace. Emotions are a significant aspect of work life, and as such, the ability to manage them and understand and perceive the emotions of others is critical to engaging socially and to career success. Social, relational, and emotional skills are all subsumed under the concept of EI; therefore, this research served to strengthen the body of literature and understanding of emotions and interactions in mentoring relationships.
Emotions influence how we perceive and react to life, as well as how we are perceived. As Liu et al. (2011) suggested, the quality of interaction and relationships influences both learning and mentoring received at work. Given the importance of emotion to interaction and relationships, we wrote this systematic literature review to critically examine connections between EI and mentoring. We bring this investigation to a close by considering implications for human resource development (HRD) practice and research in regard to employee development and the support and creation of EIM programs.
If the quality of interactions and relationships influences learning and the effectiveness of mentoring, it seems a logical step that the effects are bi-directional. In other words, if the participants of the mentoring relationship bring into it a high level of EI, which leads to successful mentoring, why not utilize the mentoring itself to improve the EI of the protégé? This is particularly important when the protégé’s EI is low. This would involve a deliberate pairing of a mentor of high EI mentor with a protégé who is low on the scale, thus furthering the career development of those who most need mentoring to reach full potential (Singh, Ragins, & Tharenou, 2009). Because mentoring depends on the very social skills and interaction that this research shows is associated with EI, the practice of these skills should also increase EI.
Another strong potential implication of this research is that organizations may want to consider administering established, validated EI tests as part of the decision-making process when selecting mentors and protégés for formal mentoring programs. That said, this comes with its own risks of reducing focus to the development of high potential employees, in addition to reproducing value systems and potentially undermining the value of women and their type of emotional skills (Thory, 2013).
For HRD practitioners who are considering implementing or utilizing mentoring as a career development tool, this review gives them more perspectives on opportunities and provides another method of focusing employee development efforts. It suggests that it is essential to select a mentor who is high in EI and uses his or her emotional competence to maximize the potential of the mentoring relationship. It also points to the importance of selecting a protégé who is high in EI in order for that person to be able to reap the benefits of the relationship. Furthermore, mentors are more effective when they have highly developed mentoring relational skills such as trust building, empathy, honesty, reflexivity, role modeling, career and organization savvy, coaching, psychosocial support, and developmental support. Emotionally intelligent mentors more effectively facilitate successful progression through the initial stages of mentoring (initiation and cohesion) and prevent negative mentoring.
The importance of EI in mentoring can be taken into consideration not only pertaining to selection but also in training and evaluation of mentoring. As mentioned regarding selection, it may be important to consider the current EI level of both the mentor and the protégé. In respect to training, it may be necessary to first (or concurrently) develop an employee’s EI before engaging in efforts to establish a mentoring relationship.
According to the literature, mentors lack training, especially when it comes to managing the emotional wake of protégés. Although Cremona (2010) studied emotional responses of coaches, her recommendations are relevant for mentors. Cremona suggested that training should involve empathy, body awareness, and relationship building and connect emotions to engagement, motivation, resilience, leadership, and managing change. She advocates that management types need to “demystify their views about emotions . . . and expand and deepen their approach towards emotion . . . in the workplace” (p. 58). Mentoring can have the effect of further increasing the EI of a protégé (Kram, 1985; Kram & Cherniss, 2001).
As for evaluation, one measure of effectiveness of the mentoring might be EI levels and potential resulting increases. This marriage of EI and mentoring may result in heightened learning, more successful mentoring relationships, improved retention, and enhanced HRD. In sum, the recommendations for HRD include the following:
Measure the EI level of a potential mentor
Measure the mentoring relational skills of the mentor
Provide mentoring relational skills development (coaching, mentoring, and training) to mentors who are low in this area
Measure the EI level of the protégé
Select those with high EI who will most contribute and benefit from the relationship, or
Deliberately pair a mentor of high EI with a protégé who is low, if the goal is to increase the protégé’s EI
Provide EI training when needed, focusing on those aspects that facilitate social interaction
Administer both a pre-test and post-test of EI if the mentoring is focused on developing EI
Limitations and Future Research
This research set out to provide a systematic review of EIM. A significant limitation of theoretical research is applying conceptual models to real-life situations. Given the theoretical nature of this work, we recommend further empirical investigation. Questions for future empirical research might include the following:
Does the level of EI of both the mentor and the protégé influence the effectiveness of the mentoring relationship, and in particular, in the initiation and cultivation phases of the mentoring relationship?
Does the level of EI of both the mentor and the protégé influence the positivity or negativity of the mentoring relationship?
Which social and interaction-focused EI skills are most critical to mentoring success?
Are EI abilities of the mentor and of the protégé equally important?
Should EI be measured as criteria in mentor and protégé selection?
How much might EI further develop as a result of mentoring?
Does importance of EI differ by type of mentoring relationships?
These questions can be answered with further empirical testing of the model put forth in this article. It is important for the field of HRD to determine the extent of the relationship between EI and success of mentoring. EIM has the potential to make mentoring relationships more powerful and productive.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Author Biographies
References
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