Interactions between immune systems, nervous systems, and behavior are well established in vertebrates. A comparative examination of these interactions in other animals will help us understand their evolution and present adaptive functions. Insects show immune-behavioral interactions similar to those seen in vertebrates, suggesting that many of them may have a highly conserved function. Activation of an immune response in insects results in illness-induced anorexia, behavioral fever, changes in reproductive behavior, and decreased learning ability in a broad range of species. Flight-or-fight behaviors result in a decline in disease resistance. In insects, illness-induced anorexia may enhance immunity. Stress-induced immunosuppression is probably due to physiological conflicts between the immune response and those of other physiological processes. Because insects occupy a wide range of ecological niches, they will be useful in examining how some immune-behavioral interactions are sculpted by an animal's behavioral ecology.
Adamo, S. A. (1998a). Feeding suppression in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta: Costs and benefits to the parasitic wasp Cotesia congregata. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 76, 1634-1640.
2.
Adamo, S. A. (1998b). The specificity of behavioral fever in the cricket Acheta domesticus. Journal of Parasitology, 84, 529-533.
3.
Adamo, S. A. (1999). Evidence for adaptive changes in egg-laying in crickets exposed to bacteria and parasites. Animal Behaviour, 57, 117-124.
4.
Adamo, S. A. (2004a). Estimating disease resistance in insects: Phenoloxidase and lysozyme-like activity and disease resistance in the cricket Gryllus texensis. Journal of Insect Physiology, 50, 209-216.
5.
Adamo, S. A. (2004b). How should behavioural ecologists interpret measurements of immunity?Animal Behaviour, 68, 1443-1449.
6.
Adamo, S. A. (2005). Parasitic suppression of feeding in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta: Parallels with feeding depression after an immune challenge. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 60, 185-197.
7.
Adamo, S. A., Linn, C. E., & Beckage, N. E. (1997). Correlation between changes in host behaviour and octopamine levels in the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta parasitized by the gregarious braconid parasitoid wasp Cotesia congregata. Journal of Experimental Biology, 200, 117-127.
8.
Adamo, S. A., Linn, C. E., & Hoy, R. R. (1995). The role of neurohormonal octopamine during “fight or flight” behaviour in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. Journal of Experimental Biology, 198, 1691-1700.
9.
Adamo, S. A., & Parsons, N. M. (in press). The emergency life-history stage and immunity in the cricket, Gryllus texensis. Animal Behaviour.
10.
Apanius, V. (1998). Stress and immune defense. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 27, 133-153.
11.
Baines, D., DeSantis, T., & Downer, R. (1992). Octopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine enhance the phagocytic and nodule formation activities of cockroach (Periplaneta americana) haemocytes. Journal of Insect Physiology, 38, 905-914.
12.
Baines, D., & Downer, R. G. H. (1992). 5-Hydroxytryptamine-sensitive adenylate cyclase affects phagocytosis in cockroach hemocytes. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 21, 303-316.
13.
Baines, D., & Downer, R. G. H. (1994). Octopamine enhances phagocytosis in cockroach hemocytes: Involvement of inositol trisphosphate. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 26, 249-261.
14.
Bicker, G. (2001). Nitric oxide: An unconventional messenger in the nervous system of an orthopteroid insect. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 48, 100-110.
15.
Bidochka, M. J., Gillespie, J. P., & Khachatourians, G. G. (1989). Phenoloxidase activity of acridid grasshoppers from the subfamilies Melanoplinae and Oedipodinae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B, 94B, 117-124.
16.
Braude, S., Tang-Martinez, Z., & Taylor, G. T. (1999). Stress, testosterone, and the immunoredistribution hypothesis. Behavioral Ecology, 10, 345-350.
17.
Brey, P. T. (1994). The impact of stress on insect immunity. Bulletin de l'Institut Pasteur, 92, 101-118.
18.
Bronstein, S. M., & Conner, W. E. (1984). Endotoxin-induced behavioral fever in the Madagascar cockroach, Gromphadorhina portentosa. Journal of Insect Physiology, 30, 327-330.
19.
Brown, G. E., Anderson, C. L., & Scruggs, J. L. (1994). Shock-induced analgesia in the cockroach (Periplaneta americana). Psychological Report, 74, 1051-1057.
20.
Bullen, J. J. (1981). The significance of iron in infection. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 3, 1127-1138.
21.
Bundey, S., Raymond, S., Dean, P., Roberts, S. K., Dillon, R. J., & Charnley, A. K. (2003). Eicosanoid involvement in the regulation of behavioral fever in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregoria. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, 52, 183-192.
22.
Clark, K. D., Kim, Y., & Strand, M. R. (2005). Plasmatocyte sensitivity to plasmatocyte spreading peptide (PSP) fluctuates with the larval molting cycle. Journal of Insect Physiology, 51, 587-596.
23.
Dantzer, R. (1999). Sickness behavior: A neuroimmune-based response to infectious disease. In M. Schedlowski & U. Tewes (Eds.), Psychoneuroimmunology (pp. 235-275). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
24.
Dantzer, R. (2004). Cytokine-induced sickness behaviour: A neuroimmune response to activation of the innate immunity. European Journal of Pharmacology, 500, 399-411.
25.
Davenport, A. P., & Evans, P. D. (1984). Changes in hemolymph octopamine levels associated with food-deprivation in the locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Physiological Entomology, 9, 269-274.
26.
De Jong-Brink, M. (1995). How schistosomes profit from the stress responses they elicit in their hosts. Advances in Parasitology, 35, 177-256.
27.
Dettloff, M., Wittwer, D., Weise, C., & Wiesner, A. (2001). Lipophorin of lower density is formed during immune responses in the lepidopteran insect Galleria mellonella. Cell and Tissue Research, 306, 449-458.
28.
Dhabhar, F. (2002). Stress-induced augmentation of immune function: The role of stress hormones, leukocyte trafficking, and cytokines. Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 16, 785-798.
29.
Diehl-Jones, W. L., Mandato, C. A., Whent, G., & Downer, R. G. H. (1996). Monoaminergic regulation of hemocyte activity. Journal of Insect Physiology, 42, 13-19.
30.
Donegan, K., & Lighthart, B. (1989). Effect of several stress factors on the susceptibility of the predatory insect Chyrsoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) to the fungal pathogen Beauversia bassiana. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 54, 79-84.
31.
Dunn, P. E., Bohnert, T. J., & Russell, V. (1994). Regulation of antibacterial protein synthesis following infection and during metamorphosis of Manduca sexta. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 712, 117-130.
32.
Dunphy, G. B., & Downer, R. G. H. (1994). Octopamine, a modulator of the haemocytic nodulation response of non-immune Galleria mellonella. Journal of Insect Physiology, 40, 267-272.
33.
Dunphy, G. B., Niven, D. F., & Chadwick, J. S. (2002). Iron contributes to the antibacterial functions of the haemolymph of Galleria mellonella. Journal of Insect Physiology, 48, 903-914.
34.
Exton, M. S. (1997). Infection-induced anorexia: Active host defense strategy. Appetite, 29, 369-383.
35.
Furlong, M. J., & Groden, E. (2003). Starvation induced stress and the susceptibility of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, to infection by Beauveria bassiana. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 83, 127-138.
36.
Ganong, W. F. (1983). Review of medical physiology (11th ed.). Los Altos, CA: Lange Medical Publications.
37.
Gillespie, J. P., Kanost, M. R., & Trenczek, T. (1997). Biological mediators of insect immunity. Annual Review of Entomology, 42, 611-643.
38.
Gillott, C. (2003). Male accessory gland secretions: Modulators of female reproductive physiology and behavior. Annual Review of Entomology, 48, 163-184.
39.
Glaser, R., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2005). Stress-induced immune dys-function: Implications for health. Nature Reviews Immunology, 5, 243-251.
40.
Goldsworthy, G. J., Opoku-ware, K., & Mullen, L. M. (2005). Adipokinetic hormone and the immune responses of locusts to infection. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1040, 106-113.
41.
Goulding, N. J., & Flower, R. J. (1997). Glucocorticoids and the immune system. In J. Buckingham, G. Gillies, & A. Cowell (Eds.), Stress, stress hormones and the immune system (pp. 199-223). Toronto, Canada: Wiley and Sons.
42.
Gritsai, O. B., Dubynin, V. A., Pilpenko, V. E., & Petrov, O. P. (2004). Effects of peptide and non-peptide opioids on protective reaction of the cockroach Periplaneta americana in the “hot camera.”Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology, 40, 153-160.
43.
Hart, B. L. (1988). Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 12, 123-137.
44.
Hayakawa, Y. (1995). Growth-blocking peptide: An insect biogenic peptide that prevents the onset of metamorphosis. Journal of Insect Physiology, 41, 1-6.
45.
Hazarika, H. L., & Gupta, A. P. (1987). Anatomy of the retrocerebral complex of Blattella germanica L. (Dictyoptera Blattellidae). Zoologischer-Anzeiger, 219, 257-264.
46.
Hellon, R., Townsend, Y., Laburn, H. P., & Mitchell, D. (1991). Mechanisms of fever. In E. Schönbaum & P. Lomax (Eds.), Thermoregulation: Pathology, pharmacology and therapy (pp. 19-54). New York: Pergamon.
47.
Hoffmann, J. A. (2003). The immune response of Drosophila. Nature, 426, 33-38.
48.
Irving, P., Ubeda, J. M., Doucet, D., Troxler, L., Lagueux, M., Zachary, D., et al. (2005). New insights into Drosophila larval hemocyte functions through genome-wide analysis. Cellular Microbiology, 7, 335-350.
49.
Jacot, A., Scheuber, H., & Brinkhof, M. W. G. (2004). Costs of an induced immune response on sexual display and longevity in field crickets. Evolution, 58, 2280-2286.
50.
Kluger, M. J., Kozak, W., Conn, C. A., Leon, L. R., & Soszynski, D. (1996). The adaptive value of fever. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 10, 1-20.
51.
Koella, J. C., & Boëte, C. (2002). A genetic correlation between age at pupation and melanization immune response of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti. Evolution, 56, 1074-1079.
52.
Konsman, J. P., Parnet, P., & Dantzer, R. (2002). Cytokine-induced sickness behaviour: Mechanisms and implications. Trends in Neurosciences, 25, 154-159.
53.
Korte, S. M., Koolhaas, J. M., Wingfield, J. C., & McEwen, B. S. (2005). The Darwinian concept of stress: Benefits of allostasis and costs of allostatic load and the trade-offs in health and disease. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 3-38.
54.
Kyriazakis, I., Tolkamp, B. J., & Hutchings, M. R. (1998). Towards a functional explanation of the occurrence of anorexia during parasitic infections. Animal Behaviour, 56, 265-274.
55.
Lacoste, A., Jalabert, F., Malham, S., Cueff, A., & Poulet, S. (2001). Stress and stress-induced neuroendocrine changes increase the susceptibility of juvenile oysters (Crassostrea gigas) to Vibrio splendidus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 2304-2309.
56.
Lacoste, A., Malham, S., Cueff, A., Jalabert, F., Gélébart, F., & Poulet, S. (2001). Evidence for a form of adrenergic response to stress in the mollusc Crassostrea gigas. Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 1247-1255.
57.
Lavine, M. D., & Strand, M. R. (2002). Insect hemocytes and their role in immunity. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 32, 1295-1309.
58.
Locke, M., & Nichol, H. (1992). Iron economy in insects: Transport, metabolism and storage. Annual Review of Entomology, 37, 195-215.
59.
Louis, C., Jourdan, M., & Cabanac, M. (1986). Behavioral fever and therapy in a rickettsia-infected Orthoptera. American Journal of Physiology, 250, R991-R995.
60.
Maier, S. F. (2003). Bi-directional immune-brain communication: Implications for understanding stress, pain and cognition. Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 17, 69-85.
61.
Mallon, E. B., Brockmann, A., & Schmid-Hempel, P. (2003). Immune response inhibits associative learning in insects. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 270, 2471-2473.
62.
Maule, A. G., & Vanderkooi, S. P. (1999). Stress-induced immune-endocrine interaction. In P. Balm (Ed.), Stress physiology in animals(pp. 205-245). Boca Raton, FL: Sheffield Academic Press/CRC Press.
63.
McClain, E., Magnuson, P., & Warner, S. J. (1988). Behavioural fever in a Namib desert tenebrionid beetle, Onymacris plana. Journal of Insect Physiology, 34, 279-284.
64.
McGraw, L. A., Gibson, G., Clark, A. G., & Wolfner, M. F. (2004). Genes regulated by mating, sperm or seminal proteins in mated female Drosophila melanogaster. Current Biology, 14, 1509-1514.
65.
Miles, C. I., & Booker, R. (2000). Octopamine mimics the effects of parasitism on the foregut of the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. Journal of Experimental Biology, 203, 1689-1700.
66.
Moltz, H. (1993). Fever: Causes and consequences. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 17, 237-269.
67.
Moore, J. (2002). Parasites and the behavior of animals. New York: Oxford University Press.
68.
Morales, J., Moreno, J., Merino, S., Tomás, G., Martinez, J., & Garamszegi, L. Z. (2004). Associations between immune parameters, parasitism, and stress in breeding pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) females. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 82, 1484-1492.
69.
Moynihan, J. A. (2003). Mechanisms of stress-induced modulation of immunity. Brain, Behavior and Immunity, 17, S11-S16.
70.
Mullen, L. M., Lightfoot, M. E., & Goldsworthy, G. J. (2004). Induced hyperlipaemia and immune challenge in locusts. Journal of Insect Physiology, 50, 409-417.
71.
Munford, R. S. (2005). Detoxifying endotoxin: Time, place and person. Journal of Endotoxin Research, 11, 69-84.
72.
Murray, M. J., & Murray, A. B. (1979). Anorexia of infection as a mechanism of host defense. American Clinical Journal of Nutrition, 32, 593-596.
73.
Nappi, A. J., Vass, E., Frey, F., & Carton, Y. (2000). Nitric oxide involvement inDrosophila immunity. Nitric Oxide, 4, 423-430.
74.
Nijhout, H. F. (1994). Insect hormones. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
75.
Noguchi, H., & Hayakawa, Y. (1996). Mechanism of parasitisminduced elevation of dopamine levels in host insect larvae. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 26, 659-665.
76.
Noguchi, H., Tsuzuki, S., Tanaka, K., Matsumoto, H., Hiruma, K., & Hayakawa, Y. (2003). Isolation and characterization of a dopa decarboxylase cDNA and the induction of its expression by an insect cytokine, growth blocking peptide in Pseudaletia separata. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 33, 209-217.
77.
Orchard, I., Ramirez, J. M., & Lange, A. B. (1993). A multifunctional role for octopamine in locust flight. Annual Review of Entomology, 38, 227-249.
78.
Orr, G. L., Gole, J. W. D., & Downer, R. G. H. (1985). Characterization of an octopamine-sensitive adenylate cyclase in hemocyte membrane fragments of the American cockroach Periplaneta americana L. Insect Biochemistry, 15, 695-701.
79.
Ottaviani, E., & Franceschi, C. (1996). The neuroimmunology of stress from invertebrates to man. Progress in Neurobiology, 48, 421-440.
80.
Ottaviani, E., Franchini, A., & Franceschi, C. (1997). Pro-opiomelanocortinderived peptides, cytokines, and nitric oxide in immune responses and stress: An evolutionary approach. International Review of Cytology, 170, 79-141.
81.
Ouedraogo, R. M., Cusson, M., Goettel, M. S., & Brodeur, J. (2003). Inhibition of fungal growth in thermoregulating locusts, Locusta migratoria, infected by the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var acridum. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 82, 103-109.
82.
Owen-Ashley, N. T., Turner, M., Hahn, T. P., & Wingfield, J. C. (2005). Hormonal, behavioral and thermoregulatory responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide in captive and free-living white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii). Homrones and Behavior, 49, 15-29.
83.
Peng, J., Zipperlen, P., & Kubli, E. (2005). Drosophila sex-peptide stimulates female innate immune system after mating via the Toll and Imd pathways. Current Biology, 15, 1690-1694.
84.
Råberg, L., Grahn, M., Hasselquist, D., & Svensson, E. (1998). On the adaptive significance of stress-induced immunosuppression. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 1637-1641.
85.
Robb, T., & Forbes, M. R. (2005). On understanding seasonal increases in damselfly defense and resistance against ectoparasitic mites. Ecological Entomology, 30, 334-341.
86.
Roeder, T. (2005). Tyramine and octopamine: Ruling behavior and metabolism. Annual Review of Entomology, 50, 447-477.
87.
Roitt, I., Brostoff, J., & Male, D. (Eds.). (1996). Immunology (4th ed.). London: Mosby.
88.
Rolff, J., & Siva-Jothy, M. T. (2002). Copulation corrupts immunity: A mechanism for a cost of mating in insects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 9916-9918.
89.
Romoser, W. S., & Stoffolano, J. G. (1998). The science of entomology (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
90.
Roxström-Lindquist, K., Assefaw-Redda, Y., Rosinska, K., & Faye, I. (2005). 20-Hydroxyecdysone indirectly regulates Hemolin gene expression in Hyalophora cecropia. Insect Molecular Biology, 14, 645-652.
91.
Russell, V., & Dunn, P. E. (1996). Antibacterial proteins in the midgut of Manduca sexta during metamorphosis. Journal of Insect Physiology, 42, 65-71.
92.
Ryan, R. O., & van der Horst, D. J. (2000). Lipid transport biochemistry and its role in energy production. Annual Review of Entomology, 45, 233-260.
93.
Salzet, M., Vieau, D., & Day, R. (2000). Crosstalk between nervous and immune systems through the animal kingdom: Focus on opioids. Trends in Neurosciences, 23, 550-555.
94.
Sapolsky, R. (1992). Neuroendocrinology of the stress response. In J. Becker, S. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology(pp. 287-324). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
95.
Scharrer, B., Paemen, L., Smith, E. M., Hughes, T. K., Liu, Y., Pope, M., et al. (1996). The presence and effects of mammalian signal molecules in immunocytes of the insect Leucophaea maderae. Cell and Tissue Research, 283, 93-97.
96.
Schedlowski, M., & Benschop, R. J. (1999). Neuroendocrine system and immune functions. In M. Schedlowski & U. Tewes (Eds.), Psychoneuroimmunology (pp. 185-222). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
97.
Schedlowski, M., & Tewes, U. (Eds.). (1999). Psychoneuroimmunology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
98.
Schmidt, O., Li, D., Beck, M., Kinuthia, W., Bellati, J., & Roberts, H. L. S. (2005). Phenoloxidase-like activities and the function of virus-like particles in ovaries of the parthenogenetic parasitoid Venturia canescens. Journal of Insect Physiology, 51, 117-125.
99.
Schwarzenbach, G. A., Hosken, D. J., & Ward, P. I. (2005). Sex and immunity in the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 18, 455-463.
100.
Segerstrom, S., & Miller, G. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 601-630.
101.
Shoemaker, K. L., Parsons, N. M., & Adamo, S. A. (2006). Mating enhances parasite resistance in the cricket Gryllus texensis. Animal Behaviour, 71, 371-380.
102.
Shoemaker, K. L., Parsons, N. M., & Adamo, S. A. (in press). Egglaying behaviour following infection in the cricket Gryllus texensis. Canadian Journal of Zoology.
103.
Siva-Jothy, M. T., Moret, Y., & Rolff, J. (2005). Insect immunity: An evolutionary ecology perspective. Advances in Insect Physiology, 32, 1-48.
104.
Siva-Jothy, M. T., & Thompson, J. J. W. (2002). Short-term nutrient deprivation affects immune function. Physiological Entomology, 27, 206-212.
105.
Siva-Jothy, M. T., Tsubaki, Y., & Hooper, R. E. (1998). Decreased immune response as a proximate cost of copulation and oviposition in a damselfly. Physiological Entomology, 23, 274-277.
106.
Sparkman, N. L., Kohman, R. A., Garcia, A. K., & Boehm, G. W. (2005). Peripheral lipopolysaccharide administration impairs twoway active avoidance conditioning in C57BL/6J mice. Physiology and Behavior, 85, 278-288.
107.
Springate, S., & Thomas, M. B. (2005). Thermal biology of the meadow grasshopper, Chorthippus parallelus, and the implications for resistance to disease. Ecological Entomology, 30, 724-732.
108.
Stanley, D. W. (2000). Eicosanoids in invertebrate signal transduction systems. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
109.
Stefano, G., Cadet, P., Zhu, W., Rialas, C., Mantione, K., Benz, D., et al. (2002). The blueprint for stress can be found in invertebrates. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 23, 85-93.
110.
Strand, M. R., Hayakawa, Y., & Clark, K. D. (2000). Plasmatocyte spreading peptide (PSP1) and growth blocking peptide (GBP) and multifunctional homologs. Journal of Insect Physiology, 46, 817-824.
111.
Tanji, T., & Ip, Y. T. (2005). Regulators of the Toll and Imd pathways in the Drosophila innate immune response. Trends in Immunology, 26, 193-198.
112.
van den Elzen, P., Garg, S., Leon, L., Brigl, M., Leadbetter, E. A., Gumperz, J. E., et al. (2005). Apolipoprotein-mediated pathways of lipid antigen presentation. Nature, 437, 906-910.
113.
Vinson, S. B. (1993). Interactions between the insect endocrine system and the immune system. In J. P. N. Pathak (Ed.), Insect Immunity(pp. 103-112). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
114.
Walters, E., Illich, P., Weeks, J., & Lewin, M. (2001). Defensive responses of larval Manduca sexta and their sensitization by noxious stimuli in the laboratory and field. Journal of Experimental Biology, 204, 457-269.
115.
Webster, J. I., Tonelli, L., & Sternberg, E. M. (2002). Neuroendocrine regulation of immunity. Annual Review of Immunology, 20, 125-163.
116.
Weihe, E., Bette, M., Fink, T., Romeo, H. E., & Schäfer, M. K. H. (1999). Molecular anatomical basis of interactions between nervous and immune systems in health and disease. In M. Schedlowski & U. Tewes (Eds.), Psychoneuroimmunology (pp. 167-183). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
117.
Whitten, M. M. A., Tew, I. F., Lee, B. L., & Ratcliffe, N. A. (2004). A novel role for an insect apolipoprotein (apolipophorin III) in β-1,3-glucan pattern recognition and cellular encapsulation reactions. Journal of Immunology, 172, 2177-2185.
118.
Yoshiga, T., Hernandez, V. P., Fallon, A. M., & Law, J. H. (1997). Mosquito transferrin, an acute-phase protein that is up-regulated upon infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 94, 12337-12342.
119.
Zou, Z., Wang, Y., & Jiang, H. (2005). Manduca sexta prophenoloxidase activating proteinase-1 (PAP-1) gene: Organization, expression, and regulation by immune and hormonal signals. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 35, 627-636.
120.
Zuk, M., & Stoehr, A. M. (2002). Immune defense and host life history. American Naturalist, 160, S9-S22.
