At the End of Their Rope

Abstract

The concept of self-control has been used to account for a wide variety of outcomes, both criminal and otherwise. Recently, researchers have started investigating associations between parental self-control and family functioning. This study expands this area of research by assessing the extent to which parental low self-control and official involvement in juvenile delinquency is associated with parental exasperation among a sample of parents (N = 101) whose children have been processed through a juvenile justice assessment facility. The results indicate that parents who are lower in self-control and whose children have had more extensive involvement in officially recorded delinquency report greater exasperation regarding their children. In addition, the data indicate the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation is stronger at higher levels of delinquent behavior. The implications of the study and directions for future research are discussed.

Keywords

self-control parental exasperation juvenile delinquency juvenile justice system official records

Since its inception 25 years ago, Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory has been widely tested, debated, and scrutinized (see Hay & Meldrum, 2015). At its core, the theory centers on the concept of low self-control, with Gottfredson and Hirschi arguing that, “…people who lack self-control will tend to be impulsive, insensitive, physical (as opposed to mental), risk-taking, shortsighted, and nonverbal, and they will tend therefore to engage in criminal and analogous acts” (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990, p. 90). Understandably, given that the primary focus of the theory is providing an explanation for delinquent and criminal behavior, the majority of research testing it has focused on illegal behavior. However, many researchers have sought to expand the boundaries of the theory by investigating other outcomes that might be explained by a lack of self-control.

Considering the elements of low self-control as described by Gottfredson and Hirschi, it is perhaps not surprising research finds low self-control is associated with a wide variety of undesirable outcomes. These include, among other things, exposure to criminal victimization (Pratt, Turanovic, Fox, & Wright, 2014), poor physical and mental health (Miller, Barnes, & Beaver, 2011; Moffitt et al., 2011), financial instability (Moffitt et al., 2011), and problems within interpersonal relationships (Vohs, Finkenauer, & Baumeister, 2011). Pertinent to the focus of the current study, a growing body of research has investigated the implications of self-control for family functioning by focusing on parental self-control and the attitudes and behaviors of parents.¹ In this regard, recent research finds that parents who are lower in self-control are less likely to employ effective parenting practices, such as monitoring and discipline (Meldrum, Connolly, Flexon, & Guerrete, 2015; Meldrum, Young, & Lehmann, 2015; Nofziger, 2008; Verhoeven, Junger, Van Aken, Deković, & Van Aken, 2007); less likely to be involved with and show affection toward their children (Boutwell & Beaver, 2010); and more likely to report the potential for engaging in child abuse (Henschel, de Bruin, & Möhler, 2014).

Yet, there are notable gaps in this area of research given its infancy. One gap which we focus on in this study is the potential role that parental self-control plays within families of adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system (JJS). In particular, there is accumulating evidence that many parents of juvenile offenders report feelings of exasperation with regard to their child (Cook & Gordon, 2012; Glaser, Calhoun, & Puder, 2005; Rose, Glaser, Calhoun, & Bates, 2004). Rose, Glaser, Calhoun, and Bates (2004, pp. 34–35), who were the first to empirically measure parental exasperation, state the construct taps into the extent to which a parent has “had it up to here with this child.” Expounding on this, Cook and Gordon (2012, p. 212) state that parental exasperation embodies “feelings and thoughts of anger, despondence, and hopelessness as felt by the parent/guardian in reference to the child.”

Given the emotional and financial toll adolescent involvement in serious delinquency can take on families, it might be expected, as early research has found, that parental exasperation is more frequently reported by parents whose children engage in greater delinquency (Bradshaw, Glaser, Calhoun, & Bates, 2006). Research also points to the possibility that parental exasperation is positively associated with future juvenile offending (Glaser et al., 2005), though a more recent study failed to replicate this finding (Cook & Gordon, 2012). Still, with so few studies having investigated the causes and consequences of parental exasperation, there is a clear need for additional research. We believe it is in this regard when focusing on the causes of parental exasperation that parental self-control may play a critical role.

Given what is known about individuals who are low in self-control, it seems likely that parental low self-control would be positively associated with a greater likelihood of reporting feelings of exasperation. Parenting requires patience, diligence, and frequently placing the needs and desires of children ahead of one’s own needs. Accordingly, parents who are self-centered, shortsighted, and impulsive (key elements of low self-control) should arguably be less likely to report wanting to persist in their parenting responsibilities when the behavior of their child has become so problematic that it has attracted the attention, sometimes repeatedly, of the JJS. Considering this potential association between parental low self-control and parental exasperation is important for at least two reasons. First, doing so expands the applicability of self-control theory and what it can be used to explain by focusing attention on the implications of low self-control during adulthood. Second, and perhaps more important, it focuses attention on the behavior and attitudes of parents of juvenile offenders in addition to juveniles themselves, something which several researchers have noted is sorely needed in juvenile justice research (Bradshaw et al., 2006; Glaser et al., 2005).

In addition to a focus on parental low self-control as a potential contributor for understanding variation in parental exasperation, it is reasonable to expect that the more involved an adolescent is in the JJS (i.e., has a more extensive history of arrests and charges), the more likely a parent would be to report feelings of exasperation.² Involvement in the justice system likely contributes to feelings of anger, frustration, and disappointment by parents. Moreover, it frequently requires a significant amount of time, energy, and money on the part of parents to, among other things, make sure their child appears in court and satisfies certain court-mandated conditions such as drug testing and counseling. Other complications, such as having to take time off from work to deal with the aforementioned responsibilities, may further contribute to feelings of exasperation on the part of parents.

Given the above discussion, we seek in this study to test the hypothesis that parental low self-control and the extent of adolescent involvement in the JJS will each be positively associated with parental reports of exasperation with regard to their child. In addition to assessing the independent effects of these variables on parental exasperation, we test a second hypothesis: The effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation will be conditioned by the extent of adolescent involvement in the JJS. Specifically, we anticipate the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation will be stronger for parents whose children have had greater involvement in the JJS, as indicated by the number of charges they have accumulated.

Method

Data and Procedures

To test the above hypotheses, original data were collected from two sources. First, survey data were collected from parents of juveniles processed through a juvenile justice assessment facility in a rural county located in the southeastern United States from September 2013 to July 2014. Second, it draws on official records pertaining to the juveniles whose parents completed the survey questionnaires. Upon obtaining appropriate institutional review board approval and support from administrators at the facility to conduct the study, one of the research team members, who works at the facility as a senior juvenile probation officer, invited parents to participate in a study focused on understanding the factors that contribute to delinquent behavior by their children. Invitations to participate took place when parents came to pick up their child from the facility after being processed for one or more law violations (prior to being prosecuted), or during conferences that are periodically held with parents whose children have been placed on home detention.³ When more than one parent came to the facility, it was specified that only one parent needed to complete the survey questionnaire, which was typically done by mothers. Parents were told that participation was voluntary, that in no way would choosing or refusing to participate have an impact on the treatment and disposition of their child’s current charges or probation requirements, and that participation required two things: (1) the completion of a 15- to 20-min survey questionnaire and (2) for the research team member who worked at the facility to access their child’s information from a JJS database in order to obtain demographic data on their children and information on the number and type of charges their child had accumulated.⁴

The research team member who works at the facility and invited parents to participate in the study is only one of several staff members who regularly hold conferences with parents of juvenile offenders placed on home detention or who processes juveniles out of the facility when parents come to pick them up after an initial charge is made. As a result, the sample is one of convenience, and invitations for parents to participate only took place as time allowed or when the research team member was present at the facility at the time conferences took place or children were picked up. With these caveats in mind, of the 174 parents who were invited to complete the survey and asked to consent to having the research team member access the official records of their children, 103 completed the survey and consented, producing a participation rate of 59%. An outlier analysis led to the exclusion of 2 cases, making the analytic sample size of 101 cases. We recognize the small and nonrepresentative nature of the sample limits the generalizability of findings stemming from the analysis to be presented and comment on this issue in greater detail later in the article.

Measures

Parental low self-control

Each participating parent was asked to respond to 9 items from the Grasmick, Tittle, Bursik, and Arneklev’s (1993) self-control scale about themselves. These items were: “I sometimes act on the spur of the moment without stopping to think”; “I sometimes do what brings me pleasure here and now, even at the cost of some distant goal”; “I am more concerned with what happens to me in the short run than in the long run”; “Sometimes I will take a risk just for the fun of it”; “I sometimes find it exciting to do things for which I might get in trouble”; “Excitement and adventure are more important to me than security”; “I try to look out for myself first, even if it means making things difficult for other people”; “I am not very sympathetic to other people when they are having problems”; and “I will try to get things I want when I know it is causing problems for other people.” For each of the items, responses ranged from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). For the analysis, the items were averaged together, with higher values representing lower parental self-control (α = .92; average interitem r = .55). The descriptive statistics for this measure and all other measures to be described, along with their intercorrelations, are reported in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix.

	Variable	Mean	SD	Min	Max	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1	Juvenile age	15.67	1.63	11.1	17.9
2	Juvenile sex (male = 1)	0.78	—	0	1	−.05
3	Juvenile delinquency	4.35	3.92	1	22	.12	.05
4	Parent age	41.03	8.75	28	70	.24*	−.10	−.11
5	Parent race (non-White = 1)	0.56	—	0	1	−.15	.12	.29**	−.15
6	Parental job loss (yes = 1)	0.25	—	0	1	.10	.08	.15	−.14	.04
7	Parental breakup (yes = 1)	0.45	—	0	1	.08	−.01	.11	−.12	−.06	.22*
8	Parental low self-control	1.62	0.65	1.00	3.44	.14	−.01	.45***	−.34***	.10	.38***	.11
9	Parental exasperation	1.98	0.87	1.00	4.00	.23*	.06	.55***	.03	.01	.40***	.30**	.52***

Note. N = 101.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Juvenile delinquency

To measure the extent of involvement in the JJS, official records were consulted to ascertain the total number of felony and misdemeanor charges that each juvenile had accumulated in his or her lifetime; we refer to this measure throughout the remainder of the article as an indicator of juvenile delinquency. The research team member who accessed the JJS database in order to obtain this information has knowledge of the types of adolescents who are processed through or visit the facility and, important for the analysis, a variety of juveniles pass through the facility, from those who have been brought in for first-time misdemeanor offenses (e.g., getting into a fight at school) to those who have rather extensive histories of delinquency (i.e., repeat felony charges). As shown in Table 1, there was good variability in the count of misdemeanor and felony charges, with a range from 1 to 22 (mean = 4.36, SD = 3.92).

Parental exasperation

The measure for parental exasperation used for the current analysis was adapted from Cook and Gordon (2012) and the Juvenile Offender Parent Questionnaire (JOPQ) developed by Rose et al. (2004). For the current study, parents were asked to respond to 6 items: “My frustration with my child interferes with my relationship with him or her,” “I feel like giving up on my child,” “When it comes to my child I feel hopeless,” “Sometimes I wonder if my child should live somewhere else,” “I am angry with my child,” and “I get so frustrated with my child that I cannot deal with him or her.” For each of the items, responses ranged from completely false (1) to completely true (4). For the analysis, the items were averaged together, with higher scores representing greater parental exasperation (α = .92; average interitem r = .67).

Demographic and control variables

Information on the age, race, and sex of each parent who participated was collected through the survey questionnaire. Age was self-reported in whole years. Overwhelmingly, mothers are the ones who came to the facility to pick up their kids or attend conferences (84%). We chose to exclude parental sex from the analyses, given that including it in the analyses had no bearing on the results. Approximately 50% of the parents were African American, with less than 10% indicating they were a member of another minority group. Thus, for the analysis, parental race was dichotomized (White = 0, non-White = 1). Information on the age, race, and sex of the juveniles was obtained from the same JJS database as the information on delinquency. Age was computed to the hundredths of a year. Given the near perfect correlation between parental race and child race (r = .94), child race is not included in the analysis. The sex of each child was coded such that females were assigned a value of 0, while males, who comprised the majority of the sample, were assigned a value of 1.

In addition to the above demographic variables, we included two additional variables pertaining to events that parents reported experiencing (or not) within the 12 months prior to completing the survey questionnaire. First, each parent was asked whether they or their spouse had been fired or laid off from a job (no = 0, yes = 1). Second, each parent was asked whether they had experienced marital separation, divorce, or the breakup of a steady relationship (no = 0, yes = 1). Given that losing a job or ending a romantic relationship can be stressful for anyone, it is possible that recent events such as these could contribute to parental exasperation—stress in other domains of life could contribute to feelings of frustration and anger with one’s child. As such, including these two measures in the analyses can shed additional light on the causes of parental exasperation above and beyond parental low self-control and juvenile delinquency.

Results

To investigate our first hypothesis concerning the potential influence of parental low self-control and juvenile delinquency on parental exasperation, we employed ordinary least squares regression, given that parental exasperation is measured as a continuous variable with little skew (0.53). Two models are presented in Table 2. Model 1 examines the effect of juvenile delinquency on parental exasperation when controlling for the demographic and control variables. As shown in Model 1, juvenile delinquency is positively associated with greater parental exasperation (β = .52, p < .001). Parental job loss (β = .29, p < .001) and parental romantic relationship breakup (β = .18, p < .05) are also positively associated with parental exasperation. Model 2 adds the measure of parental low self-control to assess the independent effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation as well as to determine the extent to which juvenile delinquency remains a significant predictor of parental exasperation. Given the possibility that the association between juvenile delinquency and parental exasperation could be spurious owing to parental low self-control, this second model is critical in this regard.

Table 2.

OLS Regressions: Effects of Juvenile Delinquency, Parental Low Self-Control, and Control Variables on Parental Exasperation.

	Model 1			Model 2
Predictors	b	SE	B	b	SE	B
Juvenile age	.05	.04	.08	.02	.04	.04
Juvenile sex (male = 1)	.09	.16	.04	.14	.15	.07
Juvenile delinquency	.12***	.02	.52	.09***	.02	.40
Parent age	.01	.01	.11	.02**	.01	.21
Parent race (non-White = 1)	−.20	.14	−.11	−.17	.13	−.10
Parental job loss	.59***	.16	.29	.41*	.16	.20
Parental relationship breakup	.32*	.14	.18	.35**	.13	.20
Parental low self-control				.43***	.12	.32
Adjusted R ²			.44			.50
F-statistic	12.35***			13.64***

Note. N = 101. b = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error; B = standardized regression coefficient; OLS = ordinary least squares.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

Impressively, Model 2 indicates that both juvenile delinquency (β = .40, p < .001) and parental low self-control (β = .32, p <.001) are positively associated with greater parental exasperation. This provides support for our first hypothesis and also establishes that the effect of juvenile delinquency on parental exasperation is not spurious, at least with regard to the potential confounding influence of parental low self-control. Parental job loss (β = .20, p < .05) and parental romantic relationship breakup (β = .20, p < .01) also remain significant predictors of parental exasperation when controlling for parental low self-control. It is also noteworthy that, while the model only considers the influence of a handful of variables, 50% of the variability in parental exasperation is explained by the model (adjusted R ² = .50).

To investigate our second hypothesis concerning the potential conditional effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation across levels of juvenile delinquency, we employed a split-sample analysis. Specifically, the sample was split between those parents whose children had less involvement in delinquency (three or fewer charges) and those parents whose children had greater involvement in delinquency (four or more charges). This enabled us to consider, then, whether the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation is stronger among parents whose children have greater involvement in juvenile delinquency.⁵ As shown in Model 1 of Table 3, parental low self-control is positively associated with parental exasperation, but the effect fails to reach statistical significance (β = .20, p = .14). This indicates that at lower levels of delinquency involvement among adolescents, parental low self-control is not associated with parental exasperation. However, among parents whose children have more extensive involvement in delinquency, a different pattern emerges. Specifically, Model 2 indicates a strong effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation (β = .60, p < .001).

Table 3.

Split Sample OLS Regressions: Effect of Parental Low Self-Control on Parental Exasperation Across Juvenile Delinquency.

	Model 1: Low Delinquency (one to three charges; n = 56)			Model 2: High Delinquency (four plus charges; n = 45)
Predictors	b	SE	B	b	SE	B
Juvenile age	.08	.05	.21	−.10	.08	−.15
Juvenile sex (male = 1)	.04	.19	.03	.51^†	.28	.22
Parent age	.01	.01	.16	.04**	.01	.34
Parent race (non-White =1)	−.23	.17	−.17	.11	.23	.06
Parental job loss	.38^†	.21	.23	.29	.26	.14
Parental relationship breakup	.28	.17	.21	.40	.25	.21
Parental low self-control	.26	.17	.20	.77***	.17	.60
Adjusted R ²			.25			.47
F-statistic	3.63**			6.60***
Paternoster, Brame, Mazerolle, and Piquero (1998) Z-test for equality of effect of parental low self-control across Model 1 and Model 2:				Z = −2.10*

Note. b = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error; B = standardized regression coefficient; OLS = ordinary least squares.

^† p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (two-tailed).

To consider whether the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation in Model 2 is statistically larger than the effect found in Model 1, we used the Paternoster, Brame, Mazerolle, and Piquero (1998) test to assess the equality of regression coefficients across samples. Using the unstandardized coefficients for parental low self-control and their standard errors from Models 1 and 2 and inserting them into the equation from Paternoster et al. (1998), a z-score of −2.10 was obtained. This indicates that the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation is statistically stronger among parents whose children have greater involvement in delinquency at a p value equal to .035 (two-tailed), providing support for our second hypothesis.⁶

Discussion

Parents whose children are involved in the JJS frequently report feelings of exasperation (Bradshaw et al., 2006; Rose et al., 2004), but little is currently known about the sources of this sentiment. In this study, we sought to investigate the extent to which parental low self-control and adolescent involvement in officially recorded juvenile delinquency contribute to our understanding of the sources of parental exasperation; recent events experienced by parents relating to work and romantic relationships were also considered. In this final section, we highlight the main findings of our analyses and discuss their implications for both theory and practice. We conclude by addressing the limitations of the study and associated directions for future research.

There are two main findings stemming from our analysis. First, both parental low self-control and juvenile delinquency, as measured by the number of accumulated misdemeanor and felony charges, are positively associated with reports of parental exasperation. Indeed, the effect sizes were far from trivial, with standardized effects exceeding 0.30. The finding that officially recorded juvenile delinquency is associated with greater parental exasperation is consistent with prior work measuring delinquency via parental reports (Bradshaw et al., 2006), but this is the first study to document an effect of parental low self-control. In addition, we found evidence that recent parental job loss and problems with romantic relationships are positively associated with parental exasperation. The second main finding is that the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation is conditioned by juvenile delinquency. Specifically, both the analysis discussed above and the supplemental analysis commented on in an endnote support the conclusion that the effect of parental low self-control on parental exasperation is stronger when adolescent involvement in delinquency is more extensive. Thus, it would seem that more extensive involvement with the JJS evokes or brings out the impulsive, shortsighted, and self-centered tendencies of parents who are low in self-control, making them more likely to report they want to “throw in the towel” with regard to their child.

We see both theoretical and practical implications of these findings. From a theoretical standpoint, the findings of the current study point to the broad influence of self-control that goes well beyond involvement in antisocial behavior during adolescence and young adulthood, which has been the major focus of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory. Further, our findings reinforce something increasingly being recognized in the criminological literature (e.g., Boutwell & Beaver, 2010; Meldrum, Connolly et al., 2015 )—the role parental self-control plays in family functioning needs to be taken into consideration in order to more fully understand the etiology and continuation of juvenile offending. An implication of this, then, is the need to investigate whether self-control continues to be malleable during adulthood, something which few studies have thus far addressed (but see Burt, Sweeten, & Simons, 2014; Forrest & Hay, 2011). If self-control is malleable during adulthood, which research indicates, then the possibility exists that the self-control of parents whose children are involved in the JJS can be improved through programming—something we address below. This, in turn, could hold significant implications for reducing parental exasperation.

While assessing the extent to which parental low self-control is associated with greater parental exasperation is itself informative, it becomes more relevant for juvenile justice practitioners if parental exasperation influences the likelihood that juvenile offenders will successfully meet the terms of their probation and/or refrain from future offending. Exasperated parents may be less willing to ensure their child meets the conditions of their probation and instead may prefer that the state becomes the de facto parent. Thus, it is possible that parental exasperation may contribute to the continuation of delinquency. In this regard, there is little research that has directly examined this issue, and the research that has been done offers conflicting evidence. As noted at the outset of this study, while Glaser and colleagues (2005) found evidence suggesting that parental exasperation is associated with a greater likelihood of juvenile reoffending, Cook and Gordon (2012) failed to find any significant effect of parental exasperation on future technical violations or new charges. Given that each of these studies focused on small samples (less than 90 juveniles in each study), there is a clear need for further research assessing the influence of parental exasperation on future juvenile behavior.

At a broader level, the findings of this study reinforce the idea that successful completion of the requirements of juvenile probation and the reduction in juvenile reoffending require an approach that considers the attitudes and behaviors of both juvenile offenders and their parents (Bradshaw et al., 2006; Glaser et al., 2005). As Cook and Gordon (2012, p. 210) have noted, “…success on probation is contingent on parental compliance with the rules and regulations of probation; this avenue is worthy of study given the parent’s responsibility to ensure compliance with all aspects of probation.” Thus, programming should be directed at parents of juvenile offenders with the aim of improving parental self-control and reducing feelings of exasperation in addition to trying to modify the behavior and attitudes of juvenile offenders themselves. Programs such as Triple P—the Positive Parenting Program—which focus on improving parental self-control, child behavior, and family functioning, have repeatedly demonstrated positive results (Sanders, Kirby, Tellegen, & Day, 2014). As such, it would be worthwhile to consider adapting programs like Triple P to families with juvenile offenders on probation and to assess whether such programmatic efforts can decrease parental exasperation while also improving parental self-control.

With these thoughts in mind, it is important to discuss the limitations of our study, each of which direct attention to avenues for future research. First, this study was correlational, meaning no solid claims can be made with regard to causation. Even though strong associations were observed between parental low self-control, juvenile delinquency, and parental exasperation, the possibility exists that unmeasured confounding influences, such as genetic predispositions, could account for the findings (Barnes, Boutwell, Beaver, Gibson, & Wright, 2014). Second, even though the variables considered in our main analysis accounted for 50% of the variation in parental exasperation, there are other potential factors, stemming from both parents and juveniles, which future research should explore, including substance use, mental health problems, violence directed at parents on the part of the child, and school failure. Third, we have argued that, when assessed contemporaneously, the direction of influence would flow from parental low self-control and juvenile delinquency to parental exasperation, but we cannot dismiss the possibility of reciprocal effects, which necessarily require longitudinal data. Thus, it will be critical for future research to examine this issue.

Fourth, the sample for the current study was relatively small and based on the collection of data in a single location using a convenience sampling strategy. As such, it is possible that different results could emerge with larger, more representative samples or with participants drawn from different settings, especially with regard to the finding concerning the moderating effect of juvenile delinquency on the parental low self-control–parental exasperation relationship. Because of the small sample size, standard errors were relatively large, limiting our ability to execute a more fine-grained analysis of moderating effects. Future research based on a larger sample would further inform our understanding of the conditional nature of the association between parental low self-control and parental exasperation across levels of juvenile offending. We should note, however, that prior research on parental exasperation has been based on similarly small samples (Cook & Gordon, 2012; Glaser et al., 2005), and so the limitation of the current study with regard to sample size is one shared by other studies in this area of research. Fifth, the items used to measure parental exasperation were drawn from a larger inventory—the JOPQ (Rose et al., 2004). Due to a number of constraints surrounding time and an inability to offer monetary incentives to study participants, we were unable to assess other parenting attitudes and beliefs that are part of the JOPQ, including parental shame, parental mistrust of the justice system, and fear of the child. Thus, it would be instructive if future research examined, for example, whether parental low self-control is predictive of things like parental shame.

In addition, we see other avenues for future research. For example, we are unaware of any studies that have sought to assess parental exasperation in the broader population; each of the studies thus far conducted measuring parental exasperation have been based on families whose children are involved in the JJS. It would therefore be informative to assess whether parental exasperation is higher among parents who have children involved in the justice system relative to parents whose children are not involved in officially recorded delinquency. Likewise, future research could examine whether self-reported juvenile delinquency is associated with parental exasperation, as this study was based on officially recorded delinquency. To the extent that juveniles are able to evade detection for their delinquent behavior, thus avoiding involvement with the JJS, self-reported delinquency might be more weakly associated with parental exasperation when compared to officially recorded delinquency. Between avenues for research such as this and those discussed above with regard to improving upon the current study, we believe there is much promise for this area of research and the contribution such research can make for addressing family functioning and reducing the likelihood of continued involvement with the JJS among at-risk adolescents.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

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