Abstract
In Transformative Learning and Identity, Knud Illeris integrates the dual concepts of transformative learning and identity, which evolved separately and in different contexts over the last half of the 20th century. Yet both seek to address how one relates to one’s self, one’s existence, and to the outside world. Illeris observes, “As both one’s existence and the outside world have become more and more complex, unpredictable and subject to an increasing rate of change, these questions have become more and more important” (p. 1).
A prolific learning theorist and scholar, Illeris builds upon the work of Jack Mezirow and other leading theorists by recognizing the unique challenges inherent in Bauman’s “liquid modernity”—the ever-changing, complex, and uncertain nature of today’s world. He explores the concept of identity, incorporates the importance of developmental levels, and introduces novel perspectives on the complex dimensions of motivation, Freudian perspectives on resistance or identity defense, and progressive as well as potentially regressive transformations, such as learner withdrawal, disengagement, or overwhelm, in the context of youth and adult education. With its intent to provide a sufficient academic background to “understand and explain how the most rewarding and far-reaching human learning processes take place and why and how they have become so important in today’s world” (p. xiii), Transformative Learning and Identity would appeal to educators, school administrators, academics, researchers, and policy advocates.
In Part 1 of Transformative Learning and Identity, Illeris, a Danish professor, provides a broad summary of the available international research on transformative learning theory, citing seminal works, both historical and contemporary, that focus on the concept of “learning by change.” Illeris contextualizes and critiques writings by numerous theorists such as Jack Mezirow, Paulo Freire, Edward Taylor, Patricia Cranton, Mark Tennant, Edmund O’Sullivan, Robert Kegan, and Peter Jarvis. Additionally, Illeris includes a review of related approaches to change-oriented learning derived from thinkers such as Sigmund Frued, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Carl Rogers, Erik Erikson, and Yrjo Engestrom.
Jack Mezirow, the American theorist and academic who launched the concept at Teachers College in 1978, defined transformative learning as “the process by which adults can change their meaning schemes and meaning perspectives.” Transformative learning theory has since grown beyond what Mezirow originally conceptualized to address the emotional, social, and societal dimensions of learning. This increasingly popular theory is internationally practiced, yet its application at times bears little resemblance to Mezirow’s “factual and rational approach” (p. 15). This expansion invites uncertainty about what actually constitutes transformative learning. Illeris writes, “if this uncertainty is not rectified there seems to be an imminent risk that the concept gradually assumes the nature of a so-called ‘floating signifier,’ i.e. a liquid signal or buzzword without any clear meaning, but just a positive expression, which can be used for whatever purpose to support any hidden interest” (p. 15). Illeris’ Transformative Learning and Identity seeks precisely to rectify this uncertainty by providing an exact definition, specific content, and description of transformative learning in theory and practice.
Illeris critiques Mezirow’s definition of transformative learning as “too narrow” (p. 32) and acknowledges the modern need for a revised definition that includes both the cognitive process of the learner and incorporates the learner’s identity in relation to self and society: It is therefore possible, by defining transformative learning in relation to the identity, to create a direct connection to the current societally framing conditions and connections which create both the needs and the conditions for this kind of learning. (p. 39)
In Part 2, Illeris explores the concept of identity and observes, “If transformative learning shall not be an empty phrase, there must be something to transform, something that has a meaning and anchoring with the learner” (p. 55). Relying heavily on Erik Erikson’s model of developmental stages through the life span, the Freudian stages of development and personality, and a critical analysis of social constructionism, Illeris explores the individual and social dimensions of identity with a focus on how it is developed and changed through transformative learning.
Illeris reviews the works of Anthony Giddens, Zygmunt Bauman, Heinz Kohut, Otto Kernberg, Thomas Ziehe, Etienne Wegner, among others and proposes a structural model of identity inspired by Daniel Stern’s concept of “core identity,” incorporating Freud’s construction of the personality, and consistent with Piaget and Erikson’s stage models. It is noteworthy that the works of Carl Jung were omitted from Illeris’s review of the literature regarding personality, identity, psychological development through the life span, and transformational processes. Also of note is the absence of cultural considerations and inclusion of diversity issues, as they relate to identity formation, education, and the potential for transformation through learning.
The structural model of identity proposed by Illeris contains three levels: (1) the core identity, which is developed and changed by learning processes during the life span but seeks continuity and experiences change only gradually; (2) the personality layer, which contains attitudes, values, meanings, and so on, and which is the “usual target of transformative learning” (p. 73); and (3) the preference layer, which relates to how one thinks and feels. “In such cases the term of transformative learning will, however, not usually be relevant because nothing of serious importance to the identity as a whole is changed” (p. 74). In addition to these three layers of identity, Illeris proposes the inclusion of “part-identities” in three main areas: work identity, family identity, and everyday or interest identity. Illeris attributes religious, political, and national–cultural identity to the part identity involved with interests, a categorization that may betray his own values rather than accurately describe the relative importance of such experiences as spirituality, culture, or ethnicity on one’s core identity.
Part 3 explores transformative learning in practice both in the context of youth education and adult education. Childhood, defined as lasting from birth to 11–13 years, is characterized by the development of identity and therefore exempt from transformative learning. This is why it cannot be said that transitions between stages, as they are typically described by Stern as well as by Erikson and Piaget and many others, are a kind of transformative learning—on the contrary, they are precisely a kind of development, and even though this can happen by ‘quantum leaps’, as proposed by Stern, these leaps are not of a transformative kind. (p. 85)
The progressive nature of transformative learning occupies much of the literature, and Illeris’ introduction of regressive learning is both novel and thought provoking. Although he admits the difficulty in drawing a definitive conclusion regarding the value of regressive transformative learning—learning that results from a negative experience, withdrawal, or deadlock—he provides a case example and illustrates the potential benefit to acknowledging that “the results of intended transformative processes will not in all cases be a change for the better or an advancement” (p. 95). Regressive transformations are, in Illeris’ view, always a possibility and thus serve as valuable reminders of the necessity for the identity to react and respond with flexibility.
Illeris offers an overview of the relative importance and relationship between motivation and the Freudian concepts of identity defense and resistance, which create barriers to learning. He advises that educators should “avoid thinking ‘how can I motivate my students to learn this?’—and instead think ‘where can I in the mental world (or the identity) of these students find elements that contain motivation to learn this?’” (p. 105). Illeris concludes Transformational Learning and Identity with a brief description of transformational learning and the development of competence in school and in working life.
Illeris’s attempt to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date background and academic understanding of transformative learning is broad in scope and presented in a clear and organized manner, and his inclusion of identity and the transformation potential of learning on identity formation and development is a positive addition to Mezirow’s original theory. A more in-depth discussion of the implications and importance of spirituality, belief, and culture, however, would have been a welcomed addition to Illeris’s otherwise thorough exploration of transformative learning and identity in modern times.