This is the first of two articles on the fiber-type composition of the human jaw muscles. The present article discusses the origin of fiber-type composition and its consequences. This discussion is presented in the context of the requirements for functional performance and adaptation that are imposed upon the jaw muscles. The human masticatory system must perform a much larger variety of motor tasks than the average limb or trunk motor system. An important advantage of fiber-type diversity, as observed in the jaw muscles, is that it optimizes the required function while minimizing energy use. The capacity for adaptation is reflected by the large variability in fiber-type composition among muscle groups, individual muscles, and muscle regions. Adaptive changes are related, for example, to the amount of daily activation and/or stretch of fibers. Generally, the number of slow, fatigue-resistant fibers is relatively large in muscles and muscle regions that are subjected to considerable activity and/or stretch.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams GR, Hather BM, Baldwin KM, Dudley GA -1993-. Skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain composition and resistance training. J Appl Physiol74:911–915.
2.
Allen DL, Harrison BC, Leinwand LA -2000-. Inactivation of myosin heavy chain genes in the mouse: diverse and unexpected phenotypes. Microsc Res Tech50:492–499.
3.
Bakels R, Kernell D -1993-. Matching between motoneurone and muscle unit properties in rat medial gastrocnemius. J Physiol463:307–324.
4.
Baldwin KM, Haddad F -2001-. Plasticity in skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Invited review: effects of different activity and inactivity paradigms on myosin heavy chain gene expression in striated muscle. J Appl Physiol90:345–357.
5.
Barnard RJ, Edgerton VR, Furukawa T, Peter JB -1971-. Histochemical, biochemical, and contractile properties of red, white, and intermediate fibers. Am J Physiol220:410–414.
6.
Blanksma NG, Van Eijden TM -1990-. Electromyographic heterogeneity in the human temporal muscle. J Dent Res69:1686–1690.
7.
Blanksma NG, Van Eijden TM -1995-. Electromyographic heterogeneity in the human temporalis and masseter muscles during static biting, open/close excursions, and chewing. J Dent Res74:1318–1327.
8.
Blanksma NG, Van Eijden TM, van Ruijven LJ, Weijs WA -1997-. Electromyographic heterogeneity in the human temporalis and masseter muscles during dynamic tasks guided by visual feedback. J Dent Res76:542–551.
9.
Bottinelli R, Betto R, Schiaffino S, Reggiani C -1994-. Unloaded shortening velocity and myosin heavy chain and alkali light chain isoform composition in rat skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol478:341–349.
10.
Bottinelli R, Canepari M, Pellegrino MA, Reggiani C -1996-. Force-velocity properties of human skeletal muscle fibres: myosin heavy chain isoform and temperature dependence. J Physiol495:573–586.
11.
Bottinelli R, Pellegrino MA, Canepari M, Rossi R, Reggiani C -1999-. Specific contributions of various muscle fibre types to human muscle performance: an in vitro study. J Electromyogr Kinesiol9:87–95.
12.
Bredman JJ, Wessels A, Weijs WA, Korfage JA, Soffers CA, Moorman AF -1991-. Demonstration of ‘cardiac-specific’ myosin heavy chain in masticatory muscles of human and rabbit. Histochem J23:160–170.
13.
Brooke MH, Kaiser KK -1970-. Muscle fibre types: how many and what kind? Arch Neurol23:369–379.
14.
Burke RE, Levine DN, Zajac FE 3rd -1971-. Mammalian motor units: physiological-histochemical correlation in three types in cat gastrocnemius. Science174:709–712.
15.
Butler-Browne GS, Eriksson PO, Laurent C, Thornell LE -1988-. Adult human masseter muscle fibres express myosin isozymes characteristic of development. Muscle Nerve11:610–620.
16.
Chin ER, Olson EN, Richardson JA, Yang Q, Humphries C, Shelton JM, et al. -1998-. A calcineurin-dependent transcriptional pathway controls skeletal muscle fiber type. Genes Dev12:2499–2509.
17.
Clark RW, Luschei ES, Hoffman DS -1978-. Recruitment order, contractile characteristics, and firing patterns of motor units in the temporalis muscle of monkeys. Exp Neurol61:31–52.
18.
Czerwinski SM, Martin JM, Bechtel PJ -1994-. Modulation of IGF mRNA abundance during stretch-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy and regression. J Appl Physiol76:2026–2030.
19.
D’Antona G, Pellegrino MA, Adami R, Rossi R, Carlizzi CN, Canepari M, et al. -2003-. The effect of ageing and immobilization on structure and function of human skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol552:499–511.
20.
Delp MD, Pette D -1994-. Morphological changes during fiber type transitions in low-frequency-stimulated rat fast-twitch muscle. Cell Tissue Res277:363–371.
21.
DeNardi C, Ausoni S, Moretti P, Gorza L, Velleca M, Buckingham M -1993-. Type 2X-myosin heavy chain is coded by a muscle fiber type-specific and developmentally regulated gene. J Cell Biol123:823–835.
22.
Desjardins PR, Burkman JM, Shrager JB, Allmond LA, Stedman HH -2002-. Evolutionary implications of three novel members of the human sarcomeric myosin heavy chain gene family. Mol Biol Evol19:375–393.
23.
Desmedt JE, Godaux E -1979-. Recruitment patterns of single motor units in the human masseter muscle during brisk jaw clenching. Arch Oral Biol24:171–178.
24.
Edgerton VR, Zhou MY, Ohira Y, Klitgaard H, Jiang B, Bell G, et al. -1995-. Human fiber size and enzymatic properties after 5 and 11 days of spaceflight. J Appl Physiol78:1733–1739.
25.
Edman KA -1979-. The velocity of unloaded shortening and its relation to sarcomere length and isometric force in vertebrate muscle fibres. J Physiol291:143–159.
26.
English AW, Widmer CG -2003-. Sex differences in rabbit masseter motoneuron firing behaviour. J Neurobiol55:331–340.
27.
Eriksson PO, Thornell LE -1983-. Histochemical and morphological muscle-fibre characteristics of the human masseter, the medial pterygoid and the temporal muscle. Arch Oral Biol28:781–795.
28.
Eriksson PO, Eriksson A, Ringqvist M, Thornell LE -1981-. Special histochemical muscle-fibre characteristics of the human lateral pterygoid muscle. Arch Oral Biol26:495–507.
29.
Eriksson PO, Eriksson A, Ringqvist M, Thornell LE -1982-. Histochemical fibre composition of the human digastric muscle. Arch Oral Biol27:207–215.
30.
Fournier M, Sieck GC -1988-. Mechanical properties of muscle units in the cat diaphragm. J Neurophysiol59:1055–1066.
31.
Giulian GG, Moss RL, Greaser M -1983-. Improved methodology for analysis and quantitation of proteins on one-dimensional silver-stained slab gels. Anal Biochem129:277–287.
32.
Goldspink G -1999-. Changes in muscle mass and phenotype and the expression of autocrine and systemic growth factors by muscle in response to stretch and overload. J Anat194:323–334.
33.
Goldspink G -2003-. Gene expression in muscle in response to exercise. J Muscle Res Cell Motil24:121–126.
34.
Goldspink DF, Cox VM, Smith SK, Eaves LA, Osbaldeston NJ, Lee DM, et al. -1995-. Muscle growth in response to mechanical stimuli. Am J Physiol268:E288–E297.
35.
Gorassini M, Bennett DJ, Kiehn O, Eken T, Hultborn H -1999-. Activation patterns of hindlimb motor units in the awake rat and their relation to motoneuron intrinsic properties. J Neurophysiol82:709–717.
36.
Gorassini M, Eken T, Bennett DJ, Kiehn O, Hultborn H -2000-. Activity of hindlimb motor units during locomotion in the conscious rat. J Neurophysiol83:2002–2011.
37.
Guth L, Samaha FJ -1970-. Procedure for the histochemical demonstration of actomyosin ATPase. Exp Neurol28:365–367.
38.
Hamilton MT, Booth FW -2000-. Skeletal muscle adaptation to exercise: a century of progress. J Appl Physiol88:327–331.
39.
Hannam AG, McMillan AS -1994-. Internal organization in the human jaw muscles. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med5:55–89.
40.
Hather BM, Tesch PA, Buchanan P, Dudley GA -1991-. Influence of eccentric actions on skeletal muscle adaptations to resistance training. Acta Physiol Scand143:177–185.
41.
He ZH, Bottinelli R, Pellegrino MA, Ferenczi MA, Reggiani C -2000-. ATP consumption and efficiency of human single muscle fibers with different myosin isoform composition. Biophys J79:945–961.
42.
Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO -1965-. Functional significance of cell size in spinal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol28:560–580.
43.
Hennig R, Lømo T -1985-. Firing patterns of motor units in normal rats. Nature314:164–166.
44.
Hoffer JA, Loeb GE, Marks WB, O’Donovan MJ, Pratt CA, Sugano N -1987-. Cat hindlimb motoneurons during locomotion I. Destination, axonal conduction velocity, and recruitment threshold. J Neurophysiol57:510–529.
45.
Hoh JFY -2002-. ‘Superfast’ or masticatory myosin and the evolution of jaw-closing muscles of vertebrates. J Exp Biol205:2203–2210.
46.
Horton MJ, Brandon CA, Morris TJ, Braun TW, Yaw KM, Sciote JJ -2001-. Abundant expression of myosin heavy-chain IIB RNA in a subset of human masseter muscle fibres. Arch Oral Biol46:1039–1050.
47.
Johnson MA, Polgar J, Weightman D, Appleton D -1973-. Data on the distribution of fibre types in thirty-six human muscles. An autopsy study. J Neurol Sci18:111–129.
48.
Kernell D -1992-. Organized variability in the neuromuscular system: a survey of task-related adaptations. Arch Ital Biol130:19–66.
49.
Kernell D, Hensbergen E, Lind A, Eerbeek O -1998-. Relation between fibre composition and daily duration of spontaneous activity in ankle muscles of the cat. Arch Ital Biol136:191–203.
50.
Kitagawa Y, Hashimoto K, Enomoto S, Shioda S, Nojyo Y, Sano K -2002-. Maxillofacial deformity and change in the histochemical characteristics of the masseter muscle after unilateral sectioning of the facial nerve in growing rabbits. Acta Histochem Cytochem35:305–313.
51.
Koolstra JH, Van Eijden TM -2001-. A method to predict muscle control in the kinematically and mechanically indeterminate human masticatory system. J Biomech34:1179–1188.
52.
Korfage JA, Van Eijden TM -1999-. Regional differences in fibre type composition in the human temporalis muscle. J Anat194:355–362.
53.
Korfage JA, Van Eijden TM -2000-. Myosin isoform composition of the human medial and lateral pterygoid muscles. J Dent Res79:1618–1625.
54.
Korfage JA, Van Eijden TM -2003a-. Myosin heavy chain composition in human masticatory muscles by immunohistochemistry and gel electrophoresis. J Histochem Cytochem51:113–119.
55.
Korfage JA, Van Eijden TM -2003b-. Myosin heavy-chain isoform composition of human single jaw-muscle fibers. J Dent Res82:481–485.
56.
Korfage JA, Brugman P, Van Eijden TM -2000-. Intermuscular and intramuscular differences in myosin heavy chain composition of the human masticatory muscles. J Neurol Sci178:95–106.
57.
Korfage JA, Schueler YT, Brugman P, Van Eijden TM -2001-. Differences in myosin heavy-chain composition between human jaw-closing muscles and supra- and infrahyoid muscles. Arch Oral Biol46:821–827.
58.
Korfage JAM, Koolstra JH, Langenbach GEJ, Van Eijden TMGJ -2005-. Fiber-type composition of the human jaw muscles--Part 2- Role of hybrid fibers and factors responsible for inter-individual variation. J Dent Res84:784–793.
59.
Kubis HP, Hanke N, Scheibe RJ, Meissner JD, Gros G -2003-. Ca2+ transients activate calcineurin/NFATc1 and initiate fast-to-slow transformation in a primary skeletal muscle culture. Am J Physiol285:C56–C63; Epub 2003 Feb.
60.
Kwa SH, Weijs WA, Jüch PJ -1995-. Contraction characteristics and myosin heavy chain composition of rabbit masseter motor units. J Neurophysiol73:538–549.
61.
Laemmli UK -1970-. Cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage T4. Nature227:680–685.
62.
Langenbach GE, Van Eijden TM -2001-. Mammalian feeding motor patterns. Am Zool41:1338–1351.
63.
Langenbach GE, van Ruijven LJ, Van Eijden TM -2002-. A telemetry system to chronically record muscle activity in middle-sized animals. J Neurosci Methods114:197–203.
64.
Langenbach GE, van Wessel T, Brugman P, Van Eijden TM -2004-. Variation in daily masticatory muscle activity in the rabbit. J Dent Res83:55–59.
65.
Larsson L, Moss RL -1993-. Maximum velocity of shortening in relation to myosin isoform composition in single fibres from human skeletal muscles. J Physiol472:595–614.
66.
Lowey S, Waller GS, Trybus KM -1993-. Skeletal muscle myosin light chains are essential for physiological speeds of shortening. Nature365:454–456.
67.
Lund JP, Smith AM, Sessle BJ, Murakami T -1979-. Activity of trigeminal alpha- and gamma-motoneurons and muscle afferents during performance of a biting task. J Neurophysiol42:710–725.
68.
McMillan AS, Hannam AG -1992-. Task-related behaviour of motor units in different regions of the human masseter muscle. Arch Oral Biol37:849–857.
69.
Miles TS, Nordstrom MA -2002-. Afferent and cortical control of human masticatory muscles. Adv Exp Med Biol508:443–449.
70.
Miller AJ -1991-. Craniomandibular muscles: their role in function and form. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
71.
Monemi M, Eriksson P-O, Dubail I, Butler-Browne GS, Thornell L-E -1996-. Fetal myosin heavy chain increases in the human masseter muscle during aging. FEBS Lett386:87–90.
72.
Monster AW, Chan HC, O’Connor D -1978-. Activity patterns of human skeletal muscles: relation to muscle fiber type composition. Science200:314–317.
73.
Oishi Y, Ishihara A, Yamamoto H, Miyamoto E -1998-. Hindlimb suspension induces the expression of multiple myosin heavy chain isoforms in single fibres of the rat soleus muscle. Acta Physiol Scand162:127–134.
74.
Peter JB, Barnard RJ, Edgerton R, Gillespie CA, Stempel KE -1972-. Metabolic profiles of three fiber types of skeletal muscle in guinea pigs and rabbits. Biochemistry11:2627–2633.
75.
Pette D -1990-. Dynamics of stimulation-induced fast-to-slow transitions in protein isoforms of the thick and thin filament. In: The dynamic state of muscle fibres. Pette D, editor. Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 415–428.
76.
Pette D, Staron RS -2000-. Myosin isoforms, muscle fiber types, and transitions. Microsc Res Tech50:500–509.
77.
Pette D, Vrbová G -1992-. Adaptation of mammalian skeletal muscle fibers to chronic electrical stimulation. Rev Physiol Pharmacol120:115–202.
78.
Ringqvist M -1971-. Histochemical fiber types and fiber sizes in human masticatory muscles. Scand J Dent Res79:366–368.
79.
Ringqvist M -1973-. Fibre sizes of human masseter muscle in relation to bite force. J Neurol Sci19:297–305.
80.
Ringqvist M -1974-. Fiber types in human masticatory muscles. Relation to function. Scand J Dent Res82:333–355.
81.
Ringqvist M, Ringqvist I, Eriksson PO, Thornell LE -1982-. Histochemical fibre-type profile in the human masseter muscle. J Neurol Sci53:273–282.
82.
Rowlerson A, Pope B, Murray J, Whalen RB, Weeds AG -1981-. A novel myosin present in cat jaw-closing muscles. J Muscle Res Cell Motil2:415–438.
83.
Roy RR, Baldwin KM, Edgerton VR -1991-. The plasticity of sketetal muscle: effects of neuromuscular activity. Exerc Sport Sci Rev19:269–312.
84.
Santana Pereira JA, Moorman AFM -1994-. Do type IIB fibres of human muscle correspond to the IIX/D or to the IIB of rats? J Physiol479-P-:161P–162P.
85.
Santana Pereira JA, de Haan A, Wessels A, Moorman AF, Sargeant AJ -1995-. The mATPase histochemical profile of rat type IIX fibres: correlation with myosin heavy chain immunolabelling. Histochem J27:715–722.
86.
Sartore S, Mascarello F, Rowlerson A, Gorza L, Ausoni S, Vianello M, et al. -1987-. Fibre types in extraocular muscles: a new myosin isoform in the fast fibres. J Muscle Res Cell Motil8:161–172.
87.
Schiaffino S, Gorza L, Sartore S, Saggin L, Ausoni S, Vianello M, et al. -1989-. Three myosin heavy chain isoforms in type 2 skeletal muscle fibres. J Muscle Res Cell Motil10:197–205.
88.
Sciote JJ, Kentish JC -1996-. Unloading shortening velocities of rabbit masseter muscle fibres expressing skeletal or α-cardiac myosin heavy chains. J Physiol492:659–667.
89.
Sciote JJ, Rowlerson AM, Hopper C, Hunt NP -1994-. Fibre type classification and myosin isoforms in the human masseter muscle. J Neurol Sci126:15–24.
90.
Sciote JJ, Horton MJ, Rowlerson AM, Link J -2003-. Specialized cranial muscles: how different are they from limb and abdominal muscles? Cells Tissues Organs174:73–86.
91.
Scutter SD, Türker KS -1998-. Recruitment stability in masseter motor units during isometric voluntary contractions. Muscle Nerve21:1290–1298.
92.
Serratrice G, Pellisier JF, Vignon C, Baret J -1976-. The histochemical profile of the human masseter, an autopsy and biopsy study. J Neurol Sci30:189–200.
93.
Shaughnessy T, Fields H, Westbury J -1989-. Association between craniofacial morphology and fiber-type distributions in human masseter and medial pterygoid muscles. Int J Adult Orthod Orthognath Surg4:145–155.
94.
Smerdu V, Karsch-Mizrachi I, Campione M, Leinwand L, Schiaffino S -1994-. Type IIx myosin heavy chain transcripts are expressed in type IIb fibers of human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol267:C1723–C1728.
95.
Stål P, Eriksson PO, Schiaffino S, Butler-Browne GS, Thornell LE -1994-. Differences in myosin composition between human oro-facial, masticatory, and limb muscles: enzyme-, immunohisto- and biochemical studies. J Muscle Res Cell Motil15:517–534.
96.
Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, Fry AC, Gordon SE, Falkel JE, et al. -1994-. Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol76:1247–1255.
97.
Stedman HH, Kozyak BW, Nelson A, Thesier DM, Su LT, Low DW, et al. -2004-. Myosin gene mutation correlates with anatomical changes in the human lineage. Nature482:415–418.
98.
Stienen GJ, Kiers JL, Bottinelli R, Reggiani C -1996-. Myofibrillar ATPase activity in skinned human skeletal muscle fibres: fibre type and temperature dependence. J Physiol493:299–307.
99.
Talmadge RJ, Roy RR -1993-. Electrophoretic separation of rat skeletal muscle myosin heavy-chain isoforms. J Appl Physiol75:2337–2340.
100.
Thornell LE, Billeter R, Eriksson PO, Ringqvist M -1984-. Heterogeneous distribution of myosin in human masticatory muscle fibres as shown by immunocytochemistry. Arch Oral Biol29:1–5.
101.
Tsuruyama K, Scott G, Widmer CG, Lund JP -2002-. Evidence for functional partitioning of the rabbit digastric muscle. Cells Tissues Organs170:170–182.
102.
Van Eijden TM, Raadsheer MC -1992-. Heterogeneity of fiber and sarcomere length in the human masseter muscle. Anat Rec232:78–84.
103.
Van Eijden TM, Turkawski SJ -2001-. Morphology and physiology of masticatory muscle motor units. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med12:76–91.
104.
Van Eijden TM, Brugman P, Weijs WA, Oosting J -1990-. Coactivation of jaw muscles: recruitment order and level as a function of bite force direction and magnitude. J Biomech23:475–485.
105.
Van Eijden TM, Koolstra JH, Brugman P -1996-. Three-dimensional structure of the human temporalis muscle. Anat Rec246:565–572.
106.
Van Eijden TM, Korfage JA, Brugman P -1997-. Architecture of the human jaw-closing and jaw-opening muscles. Anat Rec248:464–474.
107.
Van Wessel T, Langenbach GE, Brugman P, van Eijden TM -2005-. Long-term registration of daily muscle activity of juvenile rabbits. Exp Brain Res162:315–323; Epub 2004 Dec 15.
108.
Vignon C, Pellissier JF, Serratrice G -1980-. Further histochemical studies on masticatory muscles. J Neurol Sci45:157–176.
109.
Wakeling JM, Kaya M, Temple GK, Johnston IA, Herzog W -2002-. Determining patterns of motor recruitment during locomotion. J Exp Biol205:359–369.
110.
Weiss A, Leinwand LA -1996-. The mammalian myosin heavy chain gene family. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol12:417–439.
111.
Weiss A, Schiaffino S, Leinwand LA -1999-. Comparative sequence analysis of the complete human sarcomeric myosin heavy chain family: implications for functional diversity. J Mol Biol290:61–75.
112.
Widrick JJ, Trappe SW, Costill DL, Fitts RH -1996-. Force-velocity and force-power properties of single muscle fibers from elite master runners and sedentary men. Am J Physiol271:C676–C683.
113.
Windisch A, Gundersen K, Szabolcs MJ, Gruber H, Lømo T -1998-. Fast to slow transformation of denervated and electrically stimulated rat muscle. J Physiol510:623–632.
114.
Yang S, Alnaqeeb M, Simpson H, Goldspink G -1996-. Cloning and characterization of an IGF-1 isoform expressed in skeletal muscle subjected to stretch. J Muscle Res Cell Motil17:487–495.
115.
Yang S, Alnaqeeb M, Simpson H, Goldspink G -1997-. Changes in muscle fibre type, muscle mass and IGF-I gene expression in rabbit skeletal muscle subjected to stretch. J Anat190:613–622.
116.
Yang SY, Goldspink G -2002-. Different roles of the IGF-I Ec peptide -MGF- and mature IGF-I in myoblast proliferation and differentiation. FEBS Lett522:156–160.
117.
Yemm R -1977-. The orderly recruitment of motor units of the masseter and temporal muscles during voluntary isometric contraction in man. J Physiol265:163–174.
