We provide a systematic, evidence-based medicine (EBM) review of the field of electrophysiology in the anxiety disorders. Presently, electrophysiological studies of anxiety focus primarily on etiological aspects of brain dysfunction. The review highlights many functional similarities across studies, but also identifies patterns that clearly differentiate disorder classifications. Such measures offer clinical utility as reliable and objective indicators of brain dysfunction in individuals and indicate potential as biomarkers for the improvement of diagnostic specificity and for informing treatment decisions and prognostic assessments. Common to most of the anxiety disorders is basal instability in cortical arousal, as reflected in measures of quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG). Resting electroencephalographic (EEG) measures tend to correlate with symptom sub-patterns and be exacerbated by condition-specific stimulation. Also common to most of the anxiety disorders are condition-specific difficulties with sensory gating and the allocation and deployment of attention. These are clearly evident from evoked potential (EP) and event-related potential (ERP) electrical measures of information processing in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder (PD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and the phobias. Other ERP measures clearly differentiate the disorders. However, there is considerable variation across studies, with inclusion and exclusion criteria, medication status and control group selection not standardized within condition or across studies. Study numbers generally preclude analysis for confound removal or for the derivation of diagnostic biomarker patterns at this time. The current trend towards development of databases of brain and cognitive function is likely to obviate these difficulties. In particular, electrophysiological measures of function are likely to play a significant role in the development and subsequent adaptations of DSM-V and assist critically in securing improvements in nosological and treatment specificity.
KesslerRCBerglundPDemlerOJinRMerikangasKRWaltersEE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry2005; 62(6): 593–602.
2.
AndrewsGCrinoRHuntCLampeLPageA. The Treatment of Anxiety Disorders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1994.
3.
HettemaJMNealeMCKendlerKS. A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry2001; 158(10): 1568–1578.
4.
KleinDF. Delineation of two drug-responsive anxiety syndromes. Psychopharmacologia1964; 5: 397–408.
5.
American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III). 3rd ed.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1980.
6.
WatsonDO'HaraMWStuartS. Hierarchical structures of affect and psychopathology and their implications for the classification of emotional disorders. Depress Anxiety2008; 25(4): 282–288.
7.
American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). 4th ed.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994.
8.
KesslerRCChiuWTDemlerOMerikangasKRWaltersEE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry2005; 62(6): 617–627.
9.
American Psychiatric Association.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
10.
KesslerRCChiuWTDemlerOMerikangasKRWaltersEE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry2005; 62(6): 617–627.
11.
World Health Organization.International classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD-10). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1992.
12.
SladeTAndrewsG. DSM-IV and ICD-10 generalized anxiety disorder: discrepant diagnoses and associated disability. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol2001; 36(1): 45–51.
13.
BrownTAChorpitaBFHarlowDH. Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect, and autonomic arousal. J Abnorm Psychol1998; 107: 179–192.
14.
BorkovecTD. The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In: DaveyGTF, (ed) Worrying: Perspectives on Theory, Assessment and Treatment. Chichester, England: Wiley; 1994: 5–33.
15.
VillarrealGHamiltonDAPetropoulosHDriscollIRowlandLMGriegoJAReduced hippocampal volume and total white matter volume in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry2002; 52: 119–125.
16.
DugasM. Generalised anxiety disorder: a preliminary test of a conceptual model. Behav Res Therapy1998; 36: 216–226.
17.
ChmuraKraemer HShroutPRubio-StipecM. Developing the diagnostic and statistical manual V: what will “statistical” mean in the DSM-V?Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol2007; 42: 259–267.
18.
ClarkLAWatsonD. Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. J Abnorm Psychol1991; 100(3): 316–336.
19.
ZinbargREBarlowDH. Structure of anxiety and the anxiety disorders: a hierarchical model. J Abnorm Psychol1996; 105(2): 181–193.
20.
KruegerRF. The structure of common mental disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry1999; 56(10): 921–926.
21.
WatsonD. Dimensions underlying the anxiety disorders: a hierarchical perspective. Curr Opin Psychiatry1999; 12(2): 181–186.
22.
AndrewsMDAndersonTMSladeTSunderlandM. Classification of anxiety and depressive disorders: problems and solutions. Depress Anxiety2008; 25: 274–281.
23.
HymanSE. Can neuroscience be integrated into the DSM-V? Nature Reviews. Neuroscience2007; 8(9): 725–732.
24.
HaynesRBWilczynskiNMcKibboKAWalkerCJSinclairJC. Developing optimal search strategies for detecting clinically sound studies in Medline. J Am Med Inform Assoc1994; 1(6): 447–458.
25.
HaynesRBMcKibbonKAWilczynskiNLWalterSDWerreSR. Optimal search strategies for retrieving scientifically strong studies of treatment from Medline: analytical survey. BMJ2005; 330(7501): 1179.
26.
HaynesRBWilczynskiNL. Optimal search strategies for retrieving scientifically strong studies of diagnosis from Medline: analytical survey. BMJ2004; 328(7447): 1040.
27.
WilczynskiNLHaynesRB. Developing optimal search strategies for detecting clinically sound prognostic studies in Medline: an analytic survey. BMC Med2004; 2: 23.
28.
WilczynskiNLHaynesRB. Developing optimal search strategies for detecting clinically sound causation studies in Medline. AMIA Annu Symp Proc2003: 719–723.
29.
HajcakGMcDonaldNSimonsRF. Anxiety and error-related brain activity. Biol Psychol2003; 64(1–2): 77–90.
30.
AmoCQuesneyLFOrtizTMaestuFFernandezALopez-IborMILimbic paroxysmal magnetoencephalographic activity in 12 obsessive-compulsive disorder patients: a new diagnostic finding. J Clin Psychiatry2004; 65(2): 156–162.
31.
GoodmanWKPriceLHRasmussenSAMazureCFleischmannRLHillCLThe Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry1989; 46(11): 1006–1011.
32.
MaihöfnerCSperlingWKaltenhauserMBleichSde ZwaanMWiltfangJSpontaneous magnetoencephalographic activity in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain Res2007; 1129(1): 200–205.
33.
InselTRDonnellyEFLalakeaMLAltermanISMurphyDL. Neurological and neuropsychological studies of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry1983; 18(7): 741–751.
34.
KuskowskiMAMaloneSMKimSWDyskenMWOkayaAJChristensenKJ. Quantitative EEG in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry1993; 33(6): 423–430.
35.
BooneKAnanthJPhilpottLKaurADjenderedjianA. Neuropsychological characteristics of nondepressed adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychol Behav Neurol1991; 4: 96–109.
36.
ChristensenKJKimSWDyskenMWHooverKM. Neuropsychological performance in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry1992; 31(1): 4–18.
37.
McCarthyPRRayWJFoaEB. Cognitive influences on electrocortical and heart rate activity in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Psychophysiol1995; 19(3): 215–222.
38.
MolinaVMontzRPerez-CastejonMJMartin-LoechesMCarrerasJLCalcedoACerebral perfusion, electrical activity and effects of serotonergic treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary study. Neuropsychobiology1995; 32(3): 139–148.
39.
BaxterLRJr.SchwartzJMMazziottaJCPhelpsMEPahlJJGuzeBHCerebral glucose metabolic rates in nondepressed patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry1988; 145(12): 1560–1563.
40.
BaxterLRJr.SchwartzJMBergmanKSSzubaMPGuzeBHMazziottaJCCaudate glucose metabolic rate changes with both drug and behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry1992; 49(9): 681–689.
RauchSLJenikeMAAlpertNMBaerLBreiterHCSavageCRRegional cerebral blood flow measured during symptom provocation in obsessive-compulsive disorder using oxygen 15-labeled carbon dioxide and positron emission tomography. Arch Gen Psychiatry1994; 51(1): 62–70.
43.
PogarellOJuckelGMavrogiorgouPMulertCFolkertsMHaukeWSymptom-specific EEG power correlations in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Psychophysiol2006; 62(1): 87–92.
44.
PrichepLSMasFHollanderELiebowitzMJohnERAlmasMQuantitative electroencephalographic subtyping of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res1993; 50(1): 25–32.
SimpsonHBTenkeCEToweyJBLiebowitzMRBruderGE. Symptom provocation alters behavioral ratings and brain electrical activity in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res2000; 95(2): 149–155.
47.
ShinYWHaTHKimSYKwonJS. Association between EEG alpha power and visuospatial function in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci2004; 58(1): 16–20.
48.
LocatelliMBellodiLGrassiBScaroneS. EEG power modifications in obsessive-compulsive disorder during olfactory stimulation. Biol Psychiatry1996; 39(5): 326–331.
49.
KaradagFQuantitative EEG analysis in obsessive compulsive disorder. Int J Neurosci2003; 113(6): 833–847.
50.
DesarkarPSinhaVKJagadheesanKNizamieSH. Subcortical functioning in obsessive-compulsive disorder: an exploratory EEG coherence study. World J Biol Psychiatry2007; 8(3): 196–200.
51.
TotSOzgeAComelekogluUYaziciKBalN. Association of QEEG findings with clinical characteristics of OCD: evidence of left fronto-temporal dysfunction. Can J Psychiatry2002; 47(6): 538–545.
52.
NolfeGSerraFPPalmaVBuscainoGA. Brainstem involvement in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychol1998; 48(1): 69–77.
53.
KimMSKimYYKimENLeeKJHaTHKwonJS. Implicit and explicit memory in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: an event-related potential study. J Psychiatr Res2006; 40(6): 541–549.
54.
KimYYYooSYKimMSKwonJS. Equivalent current dipole of word repetition effects in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain Topogr2006; 18(3): 201–212.
55.
CiesielskiKTBeechHRGordonPK. Some electrophysiological observations in obsessional states. Brit J Psychiat1981; 138: 479–484.
56.
RossiSBartaliniSUlivelliMMantovaniADi MuroAGoracciAHypofunctioning of sensory gating mechanisms in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry2005; 57(1): 16–20.
57.
RossiniPMBabiloniCBabiloniFAmbrosiniAOnoratiPCarducciF“Gating” of human short-latency somatosensory evoked cortical responses during execution of movement: a high resolution electroencephalography study. Brain Res1999; 843(1–2): 161–170.
58.
HallettM. Disorder of movement preparation in dystonia. Brain2000; 123: 1765–1767.
59.
RossiniPMFilippiMMVernieriF. Neurophysiology of sensorimotor integration in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurosci1998; 5(2): 121–130.
60.
UlivelliMRossiSPasqualettiPRossiniPMGhiglieriOPasseroSTime course of frontal somatosensory evoked potentials: relation to L-dopa plasma levels and motor performance in PD. Neurology1999; 53(7): 1451–1457.
61.
BerardelliARothwellJCHallettMThompsonPDManfrediMMarsdenCD. The pathophysiology of primary dystonia. Brain1998; 121(Pt 7): 1195–1212.
62.
ReillyJAHallettMCohenLGTarkkaIMDangN. The N30 component of somatosensory evoked potentials in patients with dystonia. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol1992; 84(3): 243–247.
63.
CheronGDanBBorensteinS. Sensory and motor interfering influences on somatosensory evoked potentials. J Clin Neurophysiol2000; 17(3): 280–294.
64.
ChapmanCETremblayFAgeranioti-BèlangerSA. Role of primary somatosensory cortex in active and passive touch. In: WingAMHaggardPFlanaganJR, (eds) Hand and Brain. San Diego: Academic Press; 1996: 329–347.
65.
HillyardSA. Selective auditory attention and early event-related potentials: a rejoinder. Can J Psychol1981; 35(2): 159–174.
66.
MavrogiorgouPJuckelGFrodlTGallinatJHaukeWZaudigMP300 subcomponents in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Psychiatr Res2002; 36(6): 399–406.
67.
de GrootCMTorelloMWBoutrosNNAllenR. Auditory event-related potentials and statistical probability mapping in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Clin Electroencephalogr1997; 28(3): 148–154.
68.
JohannesSWieringaBMNagerWRadaDDenglerREmrichHMDiscrepant target detection and action monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res: Neuroimaging2001; 108(2): 101–110.
69.
MiyataAMatsunagaHKiriikeNIwasakiYTakeiYYamagamiS. Event-related potentials in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci1998; 52(5): 513–518.
70.
MoraultPMBourgeoisMLavilleJBenschCPatyJ. Psychophysiological and clinical value of event-related potentials in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry1997; 42(1): 46–56.
71.
ToweyJBruderGHollanderEFriedmanDErhanHLiebowitzMEndogenous event-related potentials in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry1990; 28(2): 92–98.
SanzMMolinaVMartin-LoechesMCalcedoARubiaFJ. Auditory P300 event related potential and serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Psychiatry Res2001; 101(1): 75–81.
74.
PapageorgiouCCRabavilasADLiappasIStefanisC. Do obsessive-compulsive patients and abstinent heroin addicts share a common psychophysiological mechanism?Neuropsychobiology2003; 47: 1–11.
75.
PapageorgiouCCRabavilasAD. Abnormal P600 in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparison with healthy controls. Psychiatry Res2003; 119(1–2): 133–143.
76.
ToweyJPTenkeCEBruderGELeitePFriedmanDLiebowitzMBrain event-related potential correlates of overfocused attention in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychophysiology1994; 31(6): 535–543.
77.
NäätänenR. The role of attention in auditory processing as revealed by event-related potentials and other brain measures of cognitive function. Behav Brain Sci1990; 13: 201–288.
78.
KimMSKangSSYounTKangDHKimJJKwonJS. Neuropsychological correlates of P300 abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res2003; 123(2): 109–123.
79.
OadesRDZerbinDDittmann-BalcarAEggersC. Auditory event-related potential (ERP) and difference-wave topography in schizophrenic patients with/without active hallucinations and delusions: a comparison with young obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and healthy subjects. Int J Psychophysiol1996; 22(3): 185–214.
80.
McCarleyRWShentonMEO'DonnellBFFauxSFKikinisRNestorPGAuditory P300 abnormalities and left posterior superior temporal gyrus volume reduction in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry1993; 50(3): 190–197.
81.
FordJMWhitePLimKOPfefferbaumA. Schizophrenics have fewer and smaller P300s: a single-trial analysis. Biol Psychiatry1994; 35(2): 96–103.
82.
BeechHRCiesielskiKTGordonPK. Further observations of evoked potentials in obsessional patients. Brit J Psychiat1983; 142: 605–609.
83.
RothRMBaribeauJMilovanDO'ConnorKCTProcedural and declarative memory in obsessive compulsive disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc2004; 10: 647–654.
84.
JuradoMAJunqueCVallejoJSalgadoP. Impairment of incidental memory for frequency in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res2001; 104(3): 213–220.
85.
HensonRN. Neuroimaging studies of priming. Prog Neurobiol2003; 70(1): 53–81.
86.
DembJBDesmondJEWagnerADVaidyaCJGloverGHGabrieliJD. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. J Neurosci1995; 15(9): 5870–5878.
87.
WagnerADKoutstaalWMarilASchacterDLBucknerRL. Task-specific repetition priming in left inferior prefrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex2000; 10(12): 1176–1184.
88.
SwickD. Effects of prefrontal lesions on lexical processing and repetition priming: an ERP study. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res1998; 7(2): 143–157.
89.
KimMSKimYYYooSYKwonJS. Electrophysiological correlates of behavioral response inhibition in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety2007; 24(1): 22–31.
90.
SantessoDLSegalowitzSJSchmidtLA. Error-related electrocortical responses are enhanced in children with obsessive-compulsive behaviors. Dev Neuropsychol2006; 29(3): 431–445.
NieuwenhuisSNielenMMMolNHajcakGVeltmanDJ. Performance monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res2005; 134(2): 111–122.
93.
DehaeneSPosnerMITuckerDM. Localization of a neural system for error detection and compensation. Psychol Sci1994; 5: 303–305.
94.
LuuPTuckerDMDerryberryDReedMPoulsenC. Electrophysiological responses to errors and feedback in the process of action regulation. Psychol Sci2003; 14(1): 47–53.
95.
CarterCSBraverTSBarchDMBotvinickMMNollDCohenJD. Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection, and the online monitoring of performance. Science1998; 280: 747–749.
96.
GehringWJHimleJNisensonLG. Action-monitoring dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychol Sci2000; 11(1): 1–6.
97.
AchenbachTM. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry; 1991.
98.
KivircikBBYenerGGAlptekinKAydinH. Event-related potentials and neuropsychological tests in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry2003; 27(4): 601–606.
99.
RauchSLDoughertyDDMaloneDRezaiAFriehsGFischmanAJA functional neuroimaging investigation of deep brain stimulation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neurosurg2006; 104(4): 558–565.
100.
JiménezFVelascoFSalin-PascualRVelascoMNicoliniHVelascoALNeuromodulation of the inferior thalamic peduncle for major depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Acta Neurochir Suppl2007; 97(Pt 2): 393–398.
GreenbergBDMaloneDAFriehsGMRezaiARKubuCSMalloyPFThree-year outcomes in deep brain stimulation for highly resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology2006; 31(11): 2384–2393.
103.
RauchSLJenikeMA. Neurobiological models of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychosomatics1993; 34(1): 20–32.
GreenbergBDZiemannUCora-LocatelliGHarmonAMurphyDLKeelJCAltered cortical excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurology2000; 54(1): 142–147.
106.
GabriëlsLCosynsPNuttinBDemeulemeesterHGybelsJ. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: psychopathological and neuropsychological outcome in three cases. Acta Psychiatr Scand2003; 107(4): 275–282.
107.
ToweyJBruderGTenkeCLeitePDeCariaCFriedmanDEvent-related potential and clinical correlates of neurodysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res1993; 49(2): 167–181.
108.
ButlerRWBraffDLRauschJLJenkinsMASprockJGeyerMA. Physiological evidence of exaggerated startle response in a subgroup of Vietnam veterans with combat-related PTSD. Am J Psychiatry1990; 147(10): 1308–1312.
BryantRAHarveyAGGordonEBarryRJ. Eye movement and electrodermal responses to threat stimuli in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Psychophysiol1995; 20(3): 209–213.
111.
ArikanKBoutrosNNBozhuyukEPoyrazBCSavrunBMBayarREEG correlates of startle reflex with reactivity to eye opening in psychiatric disorders: preliminary results. Clin EEG Neurosci2006; 37(3): 230–234.
112.
MetzgerLJPaigeSRCarsonMALaskoNBPaulusLAPitmanRKPTSD arousal and depression symptoms associated with increased right-sided parietal EEG asymmetry. J Abnorm Psychol2004; 113(2): 324–329.
113.
ChaeJHJeongJPetersonBSKimDJBahkWMJunTYDimensional complexity of the EEG in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res2004; 131(1): 79–89.
114.
BegićDHotujacLJokić-BegićN. Electroencephalographic comparison of veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder and healthy subjects. Int J Psychophysiol2001; 40(2): 167–172.
115.
DebenerSBeauducelANesslerDBrockeBHeilemannHKayserJ. Is resting anterior EEG alpha asymmetry a trait marker for depression? Findings for healthy adults and clinically depressed patients. Neuropsychobiology2000; 41(1): 31–37.
116.
HenriquesJBDavidsonRJ. Left frontal hypoactivation in depression. J Abnorm Psychol1991; 100(4): 535–545.
117.
WiedemannGPauliPDenglerWLutzenbergerWBirbaumerNBuchkremerG. Frontal brain asymmetry as a biological substrate of emotions in patients with panic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry1999; 56(1): 78–84.
118.
DavidsonRJMarshallJRTomarkenAJHenriquesJB. While a phobic waits: regional brain electrical and autonomic activity in social phobics during anticipation of public speaking. Biol Psychiatry2000; 47(2): 85–95.
RabeSBeauducelAZollnerTMaerckerAKarlA. Regional brain electrical activity in post-traumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accident. J Abnorm Psychol2006; 115(4): 687–698.
121.
VeltmeyerMDMcFarlaneACBryantRAMayoTGordonEClarkCR. Integrative assessment of brain function in PTSD: brain stability and working memory. J Integr Neurosci2006; 5(1): 123–138.
122.
MorganCAIIIGrillonC. Abnormal mismatch negativity in women with sexual assault-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry1999; 45(7): 827–832.
123.
VrevenDLGudanowskiDMKingLAKingDW. The civilian version of the Mississippi PTSD Scale: a psychometric evaluation. J Trauma Stress1995; 8(1): 91–109.
124.
GilletteGMSkinnerRDRascoLMFielsteinEMDavisDHPawelakJECombat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder exhibit decreased habituation of the P1 midlatency auditory evoked potential. Life Sci1997; 61(14): 1421–1434.
125.
NeylanTCFletcherDJLenociMMcCallinKWeissDSSchoenfeldFBSensory gating in chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: reduced auditory P50 suppression in combat veterans. Biol Psychiatry1999; 46(12): 1656–1664.
126.
SkinnerRDRascoLMFitzgeraldJKarsonCNMatthewMWilliamsDKReduced sensory gating of the P1 potential in rape victims and combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety1999; 9(3): 122–130.
127.
MetzgerLJCarsonMAPaulusLALaskoNBPaigeSRPitmanRKEvent-related potentials to auditory stimuli in female Vietnam nurse veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology2002; 39(1): 49–63.
128.
CharlesGHansenneMAnsseauMPitchotWMachowskiRSchittecatteMP300 in post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychobiology1995; 32(2): 72–74.
MetzgerLJOrrSPLaskoNBPitmanRK. Auditory event-related potentials to tone stimuli in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry1997; 42(11): 1006–1015.
131.
VeltmeyerMDClarkCRMcFarlaneACFelminghamKLBryantRAGordonE. Integrative assessment of brain and cognitive function in post-traumatic stress disorder. J Integr Neurosci2005; 4(1): 145–159.
132.
WeberDLClarkCRMcFarlaneACMooresKAMorrisPEganGF. Abnormal frontal and parietal activity during working memory updating in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res2005; 140(1): 27–44.
133.
FelminghamKLBryantRAKendallCGordonE. Event-related potential dysfunction in post-traumatic stress disorder: the role of numbing. Psychiatry Res2002; 109(2): 171–179.
134.
GalletlyCClarkCRMcFarlaneACWeberDL. Working memory in post-traumatic stress disorder: an event-related potential study. J Trauma Stress2001; 14(2): 295–309.
135.
ClarkCRMcFarlaneACMorrisPWeberDLSonkkillaCShawMCerebral function in post-traumatic stress disorder during verbal working memory updating: a positron emission tomography study. Biol Psychiatry2003; 53(6): 474–481.
136.
ShawMEStrotherSCMcFarlaneACMorrisPAndersonJClarkCRAbnormal functional connectivity in post-traumatic stress disorder. NeuroImage2002; 15(3): 661–674.
137.
MooresKAClarkCRMcFarlaneACBrownGCPuceATaylorDJ. Abnormal recruitment of working memory updating networks during maintenance of trauma-neutral information in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res2008; 163(2): 156–170.
138.
ArakiTKasaiKYamasueHKatoNKudoNOhtaniTAssociation between lower P300 amplitude and smaller anterior cingulate cortex volume in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: a study of victims of Tokyo subway sarin attack. NeuroImage2005; 25(1): 43–50.
139.
NeylanTCJasiukaitisPALenociMScottJCMetzlerTJWeissDSTemporal instability of auditory and visual event-related potentials in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry2003; 53(3): 216–225.
140.
ClarkCRMcFarlaneACWeberDLBattersbyM. Enlarged frontal P300 to stimulus change in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry1996; 39(10): 845–856.
McPhersonWBNewtonJEAckermanPOglesbyDMDykmanRA. An event-related brain potential investigation of PTSD and PTSD symptoms in abused children. Integr Physiol Behav Sci1997; 32(1): 31–42.
143.
PaigeSRReidGMAllenMGNewtonJE. Psychophysiological correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Biol Psychiatry1990; 27(4): 419–430.
144.
LewineJDThomaRJProvencalSLEdgarCMillerGACaniveJM. Abnormal stimulus-response intensity functions in post-traumatic stress disorder: an electrophysiological investigation. Am J Psychiatry2002; 159(10): 1689–1695.
145.
BlanchardEBKolbLCPallmeyerTPGerardiRJ. A psychophysiological study of post traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Psychiatr Q1982; 54(4): 220–229.
146.
PitmanRKOrrSPForgueDFde JongJBClaibornJM. Psychophysiologic assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder imagery in Vietnam combat veterans. Arch Gen Psychiatry1987; 44(11): 970–975.
147.
WessaMKarlAFlorH. Central and peripheral psychophysiological responses to trauma-related cues in subclinical post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Exp Brain Res2005; 167(1): 56–65.
148.
BleichAVAttiasJFurmanV. Effect of repeated visual traumatic stimuli on the event related P3 brain potential in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Neurosci1996; 85(1–2): 45–55.
149.
HalgrenESquiresNKWilsonCLRohrbaughJWBabbTLCrandallPH. Endogenous potentials generated in the human hippocampal formation and amygdala by infrequent events. Science1980; 210(4471): 803–805.
150.
CharneyDSDeutchAYKrystalJHSouthwickSMDavisM. Psychobiologic mechanisms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry1993; 50(4): 295–305.
151.
ShalevAYRagel-FuchsYPitmanRK. Conditioned fear and psychological trauma. Biol Psychiatry1992; 31(9): 863–865.
152.
AttiasJBleichAFurmanVZingerY. Event-related potentials in posttraumatic stress disorder of combat origin. Biol Psychiatry1996; 40(5): 373–381.
153.
StanfordMSVasterlingJJMathiasCWConstansJIHoustonRJ. Impact of threat relevance on P3 event-related potentials in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res2001; 102(2): 125–137.
154.
FelminghamKLBryantRAGordonE. Processing angry and neutral faces in post-traumatic stress disorder: an event-related potentials study. NeuroReport2003; 14(5): 777–780.
155.
WessaMJatzkoAFlorH. Retrieval and emotional processing of traumatic memories in post-traumatic stress disorder: peripheral and central correlates. Neuropsychologia2006; 44(10): 1683–1696.
156.
WechslerD, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. 2nd ed.Sydney, Australia: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace and Co.: 1981.
157.
MetzgerLJClarkCRMcFarlaneACVeltmeyerMDLaskoNBPaigeSREvent-related potential components to auditory target stimuli in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: association with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology2009; 46(1): 172–178.
158.
SouthwickSMRasmussonABarronJArnsteinA. Neurobiological and neurocognitive alterations in PTSD. In: VasterlingJJBrewinCR, (eds) Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives. New York: Guilford Press; 2005.
WiedemannGStevensAPauliPDenglerW. Decreased duration and altered topography of electroencephalographic microstates in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry Res1998; 84(1): 37–48.
161.
LehmannDKoenigT. Spatio-temporal dynamics of alpha brain electric fields, and cognitive modes. Int J Psychophysiol1997; 26(1–3): 99–112.
162.
DantendorferKPrayerDKramerJAmeringMBaischerWBergerPHigh frequency of EEG and MRI brain abnormalities in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res1996; 68(1): 41–53.
163.
LocatelliMBellodiLPernaGScaroneS. EEG power modifications in panic disorder during a temporolimbic activation task: relationships with temporal lobe clinical symptomatology. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci1993; 5(4): 409–414.
HamiltonM. The assessment of anxiety states by rating. Br J Med Psychol1959; 32(1): 50–55.
166.
LudewigSGeyerMARamseierMVollenweiderFXRechsteinerECattapan-LudewigK. Information-processing deficits and cognitive dysfunction in panic disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci2005; 30(1): 37–43.
167.
BraffDLGeyerMASwerdlowNR. Human studies of prepulse inhibition of startle: normal subjects, patient groups, and pharmacological studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl)2001; 156(2–3): 234–258.
WangJMiyazatoHRandallMHokamaHHiramatsuKOguraC. The N200 abnormalities of auditory event-related potentials in patients with panic disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry2003; 27(6): 1013–1021.
171.
PauliPAmrheinCMuhlbergerADenglerWWiedemannG. Electrocortical evidence for an early abnormal processing of panic-related words in panic disorder patients. Int J Psychophysiol2005; 57(1): 33–41.
172.
AmrheinCPauliPDenglerWWiedemannG. Covariation bias and its physiological correlates in panic disorder patients. J Anxiety Disord2005; 19(2): 177–191.
173.
HanataniTSumiNTaguchiSFujimotoONan-NoHTakedaM. Event-related potentials in panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci2005; 59(1): 83–88.
174.
TuranTEselEKaraaslanFBasturkMOguzAYabanogluI. Auditory event-related potentials in panic and generalised anxiety disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry2002; 26(1): 123–126.
175.
FigielGSZorumskiCFDoraiswamyPMMattinglyGWJarvisMR. Simultaneous major depression and panic disorder: treatment with electroconvulsive therapy. J Clin Psychiatry1992; 53(1): 12–15.
176.
KaplanGBGreenblattDJEhrenbergBLGoddardJEHarmatzJSShaderRI. Differences in pharmacodynamics but not pharmacokinetics between subjects with panic disorder and healthy subjects after treatment with a single dose of alprazolam. J Clin Psychopharmacol2000; 20(3): 338–346.
SenkowskiDLindenMZubragelDBarTGallinatJ. Evidence for disturbed cortical signal processing and altered serotonergic neurotransmission in generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry2003; 53(4): 304–314.
179.
CharneyDSDeutchA. A functional neuroanatomy of anxiety and fear: implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Crit Rev Neurobiol1996; 10(3–4): 419–446.
180.
CoplanJDLydiardRB. Brain circuits in panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry1998; 44(12): 1264–1276.
181.
SachsGAndererPDantendorferKSaletuB. EEG mapping in patients with social phobia. Psychiatry Res2004; 131(3): 237–247.
182.
CampbellMJSchmidtLASantessoDLVan AmeringenMManciniCLOakmanJM. Behavioral and psychophysiological characteristics of children of parents with social phobia: a pilot study. Int J Neurosci2007; 117(5): 605–616.
183.
SchmidtLAFoxNA. Individual differences in childhood shyness: origins, malleability, and developmental course. In: CervoneDMischelW, (eds) Advances in Personality Science. New York: Guildford Press; 2002: 83–105.
184.
SachsGAndererPMargreiterNSemlitschHSaletuBKatschnigH. P300 event-related potentials and cognitive function in social phobia. Psychiatry Res2004; 131(3): 249–261.
185.
KolassaI-TMusialFKolassaSMiltnerWHR. Event-related potentials when identifying or color-naming threatening schematic stimuli in spider phobic and non-phobic individuals. BMC Psychiatry2006; 6(38).
186.
BuodoGSarloMCodispotiMPalombaD. Event-related potentials and visual avoidance in blood phobics: is there any attentional bias?Depress Anxiety2006; 23(5): 304–311.
187.
DubrovskyBSolyomLBarbasH. Characteristics of the contingent negative variation in patients suffering from specific phobias. Biol Psychiatry1978; 13(5): 531–540.
188.
EnochMAWhiteKVHarrisCRRohrbaughJWGoldmanD. Alcohol use disorders and anxiety disorders: relation to the P300 event-related potential. Alcohol Clin Exp Res2001; 25: 1293–1300.
