Transferring Leadership From Business to Education

Abstract

This case study is a narrative of four major leadership paradigms: managerial, transactional, transformational, and distributed leaderships. Understanding these leadership styles may help both practicing and prospective school leaders navigate better in the complex, dynamic, murky, and challenging waters of educational leadership. Furthermore, this case can serve as a valuable resource for practitioners who are striving to find solutions to the daily problems they are confronted with in their schools. Finally, the case may serve as a stepping stone to inform school leaders about the potential legal intricacies that the practice of their job may entail.

Keywords

managerial leadership transformational leadership transactional leadership distributed leadership organizational change organizational culture school politics and policy and school law

Old Alpine Community

Old Alpine City was originally founded by a group of World War I veterans. With several waves of immigrants coming from all the corners of the world, Old Alpine City experienced considerable transformations in its 60 years of history. The neighborhoods that used to be populated primarily with White blue-collar and middle-class families have now become more heterogeneous in their composition (Tooms & Lugg, 2008). The demographic shifts are perceptible even in schools, which are now becoming a kaleidoscope of students coming from different ethnic, religious, cultural, and socio-economic backgrounds (Boncana, & Lopez, 2010).

From 1950 to 2012, the population of Old Alpine City nearly quadrupled from 12,000 to 46,000 residents. Growth had stagnated recently as a result of the recent global recession that caused a great number of companies to close their doors. Some big companies shipped their jobs overseas to countries where the cost of labor was more competitive compared with the United States. As a result, unemployment in the city was a growing problem among its people. Because the economy of Old Alpine City was based on farming and industrial activities, people operating in these areas were seriously affected by the recession.

On a positive note, recent statistics were indicating the beginnings of an economic comeback as a result of drastic measures taken by the federal government to help both small and big businesses. In 2009, for example, many small businesses received assistance through the government’s stimulus package as well as targeted loan opportunities with low interest rates. The federal government also promised to offer considerable tax deductions to any big business owner who would be willing to invest in America and employ U.S. workers. Econometric experts argued that government incentives to businesses might have been the stimulating factors in the steady economic growth and the relatively low unemployment rates that the country is now experiencing.

Old Alpine City was among the few cities in the United States benefiting from the government’s economic policies and measures. Many of the old companies forced to shut down during the economic downturn reopened their doors. New plants were also built. Specifically, the companies that have recently been built in Old Alpine City include two steel mills, one mining corporation, two wood plants, three solar plants, an auto company, a construction company, and a Microsoft assembly facility. Furthermore, several financial institutions have opened branches in the city. A recent study conducted by the Bureau of Labor and Statistics showed that nearly 70% of the workforce in the city is employed by local industries.

In addition to the industry, agricultural products have experienced significant improvements both qualitatively and quantitatively. As an example, in the second quarter of 2012, the U.S. Department of Agriculture reported that the productions of meat and other agricultural commodities reached their highest levels since 2007. Therefore, the demands of both permanent and seasonal farm workers increased exponentially. As a result of the shortage of farm workers in Old Alpine City, those who accepted employment in this area received comfortable monetary compensations. The average yearly salary of a local farm worker was US$36,000. This was higher than what their counterparts in other neighboring cities would earn.

Along with industrial and agricultural products, the housing market in Old Alpine City started to thrive in the third quarter of 2012. The recent improvement in home prices nationwide was said to be the first positive indicators reported since the collapse of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in early 2008. Many financial experts give credit to the federal government for lending assistance to struggling home owners. In fact, for nearly 4 years, the federal government has been trying to save the housing business by strongly encouraging banking institutions to offer home owners, who were having difficulty regularly paying their mortgages, the opportunity to have access to loans at lower interest rates.

As mentioned previously, the positive indicators are proof that the economy in Old Alpine City was picking up and that the government’s assistance strategy was working (Schoen, 2013). A further illustration is that for several consecutive months, the stock market (i.e., Dow Jones Industrials, Nasdaq Composite, and S&P 500) has been showing positive signs. Consumer confidence and spending have gone up by 3%, private investment and trade have increased by 2%, government spending has gone down (i.e., both local and federal), and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has gone up by 3% (Schoen, 2013). Consequently, many investors who were on the fence started to become more confident and were willing to take more risk than ever before in investing their monies in the stock market and hiring more people.

It is worth noting that the national economic growth has positively affected Old Alpine City. As indicated earlier, new jobs have been created. The average household salary in Old Alpine City was US$38,000. That made the city reasonably wealthy compared with other cities of the same size. Property taxes have also slightly decreased.

As a result of its economic success stories, Old Alpine City suddenly became a very attractive city for anyone looking for a job. With only a 2% unemployment rate, it has been cited for several months as a national model of resiliency and economic success. In an interview conducted by the local newspaper, Mayor Taylor Sampson could hardly hide his satisfaction at seeing his city’s economic activities thriving anew. He strongly believed that the recent economic growth was one of the reasons the flows of immigrants moving to Old Alpine City continued to grow every day.

However, an increase of the population of any city is often said to be accompanied by an increase of the level of crime in that city. This is especially true when the population in question is financially challenged. Research suggests that there is a strong correlation between crime rates and poverty (Berk, Lenihan, & Rossi, 1980; Blau & Blau, 1982; Kelly, 2000; Machin & Costas, 1999; Mehlum, Miguel, & Torvik, 2006; Mornoff & Sampson, 1997; Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997). Consequently, during the time of the recession, the crime rates in Old Alpine City skyrocketed. In the year 2008 alone, 460 people were reported to have been murdered. That meant that on average, nearly 1 person out of 100 was killed every day.

Many residents recognized that crime statistics could have been even higher if Mayor Sampson had not taken some drastic measures to minimize the mounting violence. One of the measures he took, for instance, was to increase the presence of law enforcement agents in some specific areas of the city that were believed to be the hubs of drug trafficking, prostitution, and violence. As a corollary, that meant hiring and retaining more police officers.

Still feeling the consequences of the economic recession of the past few years, putting more people on the City’s payroll was perceived as a controversial action for Mayor Sampson. One of the reasons was that a few months after being elected, the mayor had to cut a great portion of the city’s budget to address financial problems left by his predecessor. Therefore, all the city’s programs or projects that were deemed non-essential were eliminated. There were reports in the local journal of Old Alpine City that nearly 30% of the city’s budget was cut.

In addition to the law enforcement measures, religion was perceived as one of the most important determinants that enabled the community of Old Alpine City to overcome problems associated with crime. Like any city in the southeastern part of the United States, the community of Old Alpine City is very conservative. Places of worship grow rapidly every year. It is hard to walk two blocks without seeing the sign of a Christian church, Jewish synagogue, Hindu temple, or Middle Eastern mosque hanging somewhere. Religion is perceived as the underlying catalyst that brings or ties all the community members together in both good and challenging times (Maton & Wells, 1995). In other words, places of worship are environments where people usually come to share their joys, worries, and sorrows, and get assistance from the community when they need it. According to Batson, Floyd, Meyer, and Winner (1999), the “Holiness Code” found in the second half of the book of Leviticus’ commands of the faithful, “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Leviticus 19:18). Therefore, during the weekends, thousands and thousands of worshipers attended religious services in churches, temples, and mosques to ask God for grace, wisdom, good tidings, blessings, forgiveness, and redemption.

Some also visited places of worship to socialize with their fellow community members or ask for support. The type of support that is needed may depend on the nature of the problem the individual is confronted with. For example, people who are unemployed or homeless generally ask financial support to pay for rent or food. For those who have social problems, places of worship become the appropriate places to request moral or psychological comfort.

Consequently, it is not surprising to see pastors or other religious leaders and community members offering prayers to people whose loved ones are sick or dead and provide advice for married couples or friends who are going through difficult times in their relationships.

Old Alpine School District (OASD)

OASD, situated 60 miles from the Gulf Coast in a Southeastern state, is recognized as one of the largest school districts in the region. More than 4,000 students are currently enrolled in OASD. The school district is administered by an eight-member school board, six of whom are elected by voters based on their previous service to the community of Old Alpine City. The following demographic data (Table 1) offer information related to the members.

Table 1.

OASD Board Members.

Member	Board position	Occupation	Race
Gary Howard	President	Lawyer	African American
Michael Spartan	Vice President	Physician	Caucasian
Adriana Lopez	Secretary	Journalist	Latina
Andrew Hong	Treasurer	Accountant	Asian American
Bruce Cabrielli	Member	Electrician	Caucasian
Ebony Harris	Member	Interior designer	African American
George Sweeney	Member	Businessman	Native American
Angela Young	Member	Housewife	Tongan

Source. This table is derived from a model created by Kowalski (2008).

Like the overall population of Old Alpine City, the racial composition of the students in the district is diverse. According to the 2010 National Census Report, there is a greater likelihood that the number of minority students in the district will exceed the number of Caucasian students in the next 20 years.

Another important characteristic of OASD is associated with the quality of education it offers. In fact, for more than a decade OASD has been recognized as one of the top-performing school systems in the southern region. Nearly 80% of the district’s high school graduates attend a 4-year higher educational institution.

Dr. Scott John, a sociology professor at Old Alpine University recently conducted a study to track down the colleges that OASD students most frequently attended after graduating from high school. This study showed that nearly 20% were recruited by Ivy League schools to pursue their tertiary or post-secondary education. In John’s opinion, seven main reasons might explain such a trend.

First, historically, the school district is known to have the reputation of recruiting quality teachers. The standards put in place by the Board of Education (BOE) in recruiting teachers are said to be more rigorous than any other district in the region.

Second, administrators’ and teachers’ compensations in OASD are very competitive compared with the salaries of their counterparts in other school districts. On average, a teacher in OASD earns US$60,000 annually.

Third, the leadership at OASD has understood very quickly that “culture is the glue that holds the school together and that blends the efforts of teachers, students, parents, and administrators toward making a particular type of school” (Crow, Mathew, & McCleary, 1996, p. 47). Therefore, to secure the stability and effectiveness of their organizations, all the principals in the district agreed to establish a strong culture of excellence that was mainly based on the missions, visions, shared values and consensus, attitudes and beliefs, and assumptions of the school members. In their daily behaviors, teachers and staff members were expected to have confidence and shared commitment to the common goals of the schools.

Fourth, both administrators and teachers at OASD have understood that despite the genuine desire for educators to help students succeed, numerous obstacles prevent some of the students from learning. These include “differing learning styles, need for additional time and repetition, low socio-economic status, a language other than English spoken at home, and parent or family situations that interfere with the learning process” (Blankstein, 2004, p. 98). To address these obstacles, the BOE budgeted special funds for the professional development of its employees. One of the major goals of the teacher development program, according to the superintendent, was to provide support for teachers as they become active inquirers in the process of teaching and learning. The model allows teachers to become “reflective practitioners with a well-established knowledge base, who build on that knowledge through on-going inquiry and analysis, continually rethinking, and reevaluating values and practices” (Killian, 1990, p. 2). Another advantage of the professional development is that it offers teachers the research foundation they need to determine effective strategies that can help minimize failure in schools and provide effective interventions for every child in need (Blankstein, 2004).

Fifth, OASD schools are successful high-achieving because of the culture of collaboration focused on learning and teaching that has become their credo (Barth, 2001; Driscoll, 1998; Fullan & Hargrieves, 1998; Hipp, & Huffman, 2003; Hord, 1997a, 1997b; Kruse, Louis, & Bryk, 1994; Newmann & Wehlage, 1995). The drive for collaboration is reflected in everything that teachers do. For example, in every school, teachers are divided into teams based on their areas of expertise. These teams meet regularly to make decisions in terms of designing strategies intended to improve curricula, sharing workload and monitoring progress, communicating with parents and community members, and sharing responsibility for assessing and developing solutions geared toward addressing the needs of all students.

Sixth, parents and community members view education as an important factor of the physical, moral, psychological, emotional, and intellectual well-being of their children (Boncana, & Lopez, 2010). There is even an anecdote that whenever one asks any parent at random about the academic venture(s) of his or her children, the latter will respond as follows: “My kid(s) will go to college. In my family failure is not an option” (Blankstein, 2004, p. 1). Such a statement clearly illustrates the extent to which high academic expectations are held by both parents and school professionals alike.

Finally, OASD is a data-driven organization (Bernhardt, 1998; Datnow, Park, & Wohlstetter, 2007; DuFour, Eaker, & DuFour, 2005; Learning Point Associates, 2006; Marzano, 2003; Reeves, 2004; Schmoker, 1996). In this regard, every month, principals and teachers in the district meet to discuss data and determine where students are achieving and systematically looking at ways to move them forward (Blankstein, 2004).

All of the good things happening in the school district were, however, short-lived because of the financial problems that struck the entire nation and, by extension, OASD. To respond more efficiently to the financial setbacks, the district has recently experienced drastic budget cuts. Consequently, many low-level employees have lost their jobs. At the beginning of the school year, the superintendent asked every principal in the district to inform his or her personnel that although the district valued their commitment and sacrifice in helping their students grow and develop intellectually, due to financial setbacks, they should not expect any raise for at least 3 years. Implicitly, that meant that those who would not have the patience to wait all this time were free to leave if they chose to do so.

The Superintendent

Dr. Alfred Hamington, age 65, has been the superintendent for the past 25 years. During his tenure, he has witnessed many board members come, serve their terms, and leave. All those who have met or worked with Dr. Hamington recognize him to be outgoing, humble, wise, smart, hardworking, innovative, and possessing a great amount of integrity. Through his behavior, he has inspired many teachers and students in his district to become administrators.

In terms of leadership style, depending on who was asked, one may identify two distinct types of leader in Dr. Hamington. First, some viewed him as the prototype of a charismatic leader who provided a vision, a sense of mission, and raised his followers’ self-expectations. Being a strong proponent of intellectual stimulation, he oftentimes encouraged his followers to promote rationality and careful problem solving. Consequently, he urged them to avoid being trapped or confined in what he perceived as old assumptions that would only contribute to minimizing their ability to reason and operate effectively (Bass, 1990b). Furthermore, Dr. Hamington learned from experience that nothing can replace the human factor in an organization. Therefore, he was very considerate with each of his employees and offered them advice and coaching any time they were in need. He also exhibited high standards of ethical conduct, shared risk with his employees in setting and attaining goals, and considered the needs of others over his own. His attitude of caring explained, to a large extent, why they felt trust, admiration, and respect toward him, and when asked to do something, they were motivated to do more than requested (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999; Bass, 1990b; Weber & Kelloway, 1996).

Another group, however, saw him as a leader who cared only about the outcome of the work done. He was perceived as developing a genuine sense of recognition for accomplishments done by his followers. In this regard, he would not hesitate to exchange or promise rewards for effort or performance. He managed by exception. In this respect, he maintained high levels of awareness in his organization to ensure that standards were met by actively monitoring performance and taking corrective measures or actions as problems became apparent. Finally, he preferred giving his followers the freedom to make decisions regarding their jobs and intervened only when the standards they had set forth together were not met (Bass, 1990b).

The Former Principal

Dr. Andrew Jacobson, age 56, was a graduate of Princeton’s School of Leadership and Administration. Before pursuing his graduate program at Princeton, he served first as a high school football head coach and then as an assistant principal. Dr. Jacobson was considered one of the “old school administrators” who was very concerned about his public image. He was formal in his attire (Kowalski, 2008). He believed that because leaders are held to a higher standard than members of the general public, their appearance is extremely important. In fact, Lunblad and Stewart (2005) shared the same opinion as him when they stated that “leaders are expected to set an example to represent values that children and youth would appreciate, understand, and practice as common held virtues . . . It is therefore important that school leaders meet community expectations” (p. 61). Therefore, it was rare to see Dr. Jacobson not dressed in a suit, tie, and polished shoes.

Dr. Jacobson was first introduced to Dr. Hamington the superintendent of OASD during the 1990 American Educational Research Association (AERA) Conference in Boston by a common friend. They also happened to present their papers in the same leadership special interest group (SIG). When the presentations were over, the superintendent invited him for dinner in a restaurant next to their hotel.

After being served their drinks, Dr. Hamington attempted to “break the ice” by asking his guest about his future plans. Dr. Jacobson responded that he was in the process of finishing the last chapter of his dissertation and looking for a job. Dr. Hamington told him that he was glad to hear that because he had an opening for a high school principal. “We are looking for a person like you, who has enough experience in the field and the knowledge base to fill the position,” he said. “I strongly encourage you to apply for the position,” he added. “Thank you very much for your kind words and your encouragement. I will apply as soon as I return home,” Dr. Jacobson responded. When the superintendent returned to Old Alpine City after the conference, he made a strong case in support of his new friend to the BOE. Therefore, Dr. Jacobson was hired without any major concerns.

Dr. Jacobson was a strong proponent of the type of leadership where decisions do not come from the leader alone. In his opinion, leadership within a school must lie in the hands of the organization rather than the individual through a process of collaboration or shared responsibilities, engagement, and self-evaluation among the members of the organization. Put another way, from his perspective, one way to improve instruction, transform school culture, and increase expectations that staff has for students is through interactions between leaders, followers, and situations (Spillane, 2006).

Consequently, he viewed himself as a servant leader whose responsibility was not to merely delegate tasks and rules with an iron fist but rather to promote the essential functions of instructional leadership. These include constructing and selling instructional vision, building norms, trust, collaboration, supporting teacher development, and monitoring instruction and innovation (Firestone & Corbett, 1988; Heller & Firestone, 1995; Purkey & Smith, 1983; Sheppard, 1996; Spillane, Halverson, & Diamond, 2001). Therefore, he seized his first faculty meeting as an opportunity to describe his leadership philosophy that was articulated around four goals:

Ensure that the visions and values created by the school are upheld and supported by each faculty and staff member.

Ensure that a cohesive school atmosphere is created and maintained. This is accomplished by having all the members of his organization work together toward the common goal of producing successful students within and outside the school environment. Consequently, he promised to involve each faculty and staff member in his school in the decision-making processes that were associated with the vision and goals of the school as well as the planning, implementation, and evaluation of educational activities.

Seek to uphold the freedoms of the individual, while protecting the rights of the school as a whole. He believed that the success of the whole and the individual were equally important and must be balanced carefully to promote democracy within the school.

Engage and maintain effective and open lines of communication with faculty and staff in the school. He recognized that each of them had a unique set of skills, talents, and strengths that could be tapped into or utilized to make the school successful. Thus, he planned to create the conditions for each member of his organization to play various leadership roles and responsibilities to help students grow and develop intellectually. To achieve such a goal, he believed that proper channels of communication between administrators, faculty, and staff must be present. He viewed communication as a vital aspect of the practice of leadership and relied heavily on the relationships among his collaborators to achieve that goal (Cordeiro & Cunningham, 2013).

It was using this same logic of collaborative leadership that few years after being in office, Dr. Jacobson initiated a 5-year school improvement plan in math, literacy, science, and technology to boost teaching and learning in these areas (Cordeiro & Cunningham, 2013; Crow & Mathews, 1996; Spillane, 2006; Spillane et al., 2001). The school improvement planning team was composed of the principal and assistant principal, department heads, counselors, curriculum or subject specialists, athletic directors, some teachers, and parents. Each of the team members was empowered to take on a leadership role in the school on his or her own initiative (Spillane, 2006). The committees or team members got together twice a week to discuss their activities (i.e., assessing instructional needs) and evaluate their progress in fulfilling particular tasks.

As a result of the distributed leadership style put in place by Dr. Jacobson, students’ learning outcomes in math, literacy, science, and technology dramatically improved the following year. All the actors involved in the process of the school improvement plan were very happy that their efforts finally yielded positive results.

However, despite all the good things that Dr. Jacobson did to make Old Alpine High School a high-performing learning environment, he finally felt the need to resign after a 20-year tenure, most of which was under favorable financial conditions. He left because of two primary reasons. The first reason was associated with the mounting budget crisis that had been brewing for some time due to the poor tax infrastructure and unforeseen expenditures associated with state and federal mandates for increased accountability.

The second motive was related to his health. In fact, 3 years before he decided to retire, he was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis that ended up forcing him to use a wheelchair. Since then, he could no more do what he used to do such as walking in the hallways, visiting teachers in their classrooms and providing them feedback on their presentations, participating in the community educational activities, and conferencing with parents.

The situation was exacerbated by the fact that when the principal’s health and financial problems started, his assistant principal, Mr. Christopher Henderson, had just been hired and he had no experience leading a big school like Old Alpine High School.

Consequently, Dr. Jacobson’s health condition created a serious management void. Teachers, who were committed before, became relaxed in their pedagogical responsibilities or tasks. Teachers’ behaviors affected students’ academic outcomes in their Criterion Referenced Competency Tests (CRCT). Dr. Jacobson could no longer support the irresponsible behavior that he observed in his school. Having spent his entire life helping students succeed, he was disturbed by the carelessness and laissez-faire attitudes that teachers were displaying (Boncana, & Crow, 2008). He finally decided to retire.

Dr. Jacobson was a favorite among teachers and staff, often visiting with them personally and attending to their needs as best he could. He was also considered a good instructional leader through his working with teachers to improve their classroom instruction. The employees at Old Alpine High School grew to appreciate their collegial environment characterized by a high level of respect for each teacher’s opinions and contributions to the education of the students. Teachers in the school had grown very comfortable in their positions and had never felt their job security was seriously threatened.

The New Principal

Mr. MacKlay Smith came from a wealthy family with a business background. His father, George Smith, was the owner of a car dealership in Old Alpine City. His elder sister, also a private entrepreneur, owned a company that was manufacturing and selling car chips and keys. Finally, his brother was operating in the oil industry. Because of the wealth of his family, Mr. Smith never experienced any hardship in his life. He had his entire life carved out for him. Having been born with what is anecdotally called “a silver spoon in his mouth.”

He attended Catholic school for his primary and secondary education. After graduating from high school, he was sent to Harvard to pursue an MBA. By sending his son to a business school, George Smith wanted him to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in managerial leadership that would allow him to continue the family business in case he decided to retire.

As soon as he graduated from Harvard, Mr. Smith was offered a position as the head of Human Resources (HR) Department in a pharmaceutical company. As one of the leaders of the company, Mr. Smith demonstrated five important characteristics or indications that he was going to stay in the organization for a long time.

First, he showed that he was a man with talent, integrity, and commitment to the organization’s mission, vision, and goals. He developed a particular focus on “the enhancement of performance, knowledge, and expertise at the individual, team or group, or organizational level” (Collins & Holton, 2004, p. 217). Second, he had a drive for competition, excellence, responsibility, and task completion (Bass, 1990a; Cordeiro & Cunningham, 2013; Guillen & Gonzalez, 2001; McCall & Lombardo, 1983). Third, he had an elevated sense of identity, self-confidence in performing tasks, and displayed great communication skills (Stogdill, 1981). Therefore, when he wanted something done, he had a particular gift in communicating his vision to his collaborators and influencing their behaviors. Fourth, he was reputed for being meticulous and displaying a particular interest in details because he wanted everything to be done to perfection. Mr. Smith had a very low tolerance for errors and failures. He was one who did not want to leave anything to chance. Finally, he was critical and analytical in solving problems (Katz, 1955; Mann, 1965). When confronted with a specific problem or situation, he never rushed to make a decision; but once he made the decision, he was always ready to assume responsibility or accept consequences deriving from his decision and subsequent actions (Hoy & Miskel, 1991; Kipnis & Lane, 1962; Kouzes & Postner, 1987; Yukl, 1994).

All the aforementioned attributes made him one of the best and most accomplished professional leaders in the history of the pharmaceutical company. Because of his work ethics, he was highly regarded by his supervisors. Ultimately, Mr. Smith’s hard work, integrity, and commitment to the organization’s goals paid off. Five years later, when Mr. Joseph Anderson, the CEO of the company was forced to resign because of problems associated with mismanagement, the Board of Directors proposed that Mr. Smith succeed him. Mr. Smith’s promotion did not come as a surprise to anyone in the company who had had the chance to work with him. Everyone knew that unless unforeseen events should happen, he was going to climb the company ladder. It was just a matter of time.

One week after his appointment as the new CEO of the company, Mr. Smith held his first meeting. During a brief speech, he expressed his vision for the organization and how he expected to accomplish that vision:

I am deeply humbled by the trust you put in me. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all of you for your unwavering support and encouragement during the five years I have spent in this company. You are definitely the best collaborators I have ever had. I know that the task ahead of us is going to be extremely difficult. This is especially true when our organization is going through challenging times. To overcome those challenges, I have only one expression: “I believe in you!” I have no doubt that every one of us will make the maximum sacrifice to help our organization become the best working environment possible.

He paused for few seconds and continued:

In the coming weeks, I will be making systematic structural changes in the company. I will be appointing new section leaders based on their areas of expertise. These leaders will have the responsibility to assess the needs of the company in terms of infrastructure or equipment, mechanical or technical support and personnel. I will do my best to address those needs without any delay. To avoid future problems, the new team or group leaders will have the responsibility to make daily evaluations of their sections and report to me the problems they have encountered. I will be also making visits to different departments to ensure that everything is going well. I strongly encourage you to ask your section leader if you happen to need any assistance at all.

Everyone will be held accountable for his or her actions in the organization. That means that people will be rewarded for their accomplishments and penalized for their mistakes. To minimize errors, clear directions will be given either by your supervisors or by me. For the purpose of effectiveness and efficiency, you will be assigned a task based on your area of specialization. Finally, I will be initiating professional development programs to allow you to update your knowledge base in your specific areas so that we can improve the quality of our production. If you have any questions, this is the time to ask.

After 30 min of questions and answers, he ended the meeting. Mr. Smith’s message was very clear. Everyone in the room understood a new sheriff was in town and that things were not going to be the same. The only question everyone was asking himself or herself was, “How consistent was he going to be in implementing the measures he highlighted?” The success and failure of the organization would depend, to a large extent, on that consistency. Many of Mr. Smith’s subordinates interviewed years later recognized that he was consistent and fair in his judgment and decisions.

Under Mr. Smith’s leadership, the company that was on the verge of collapse started to regain its strength. In the early 2000s, for example, it reached its highest level of performance ever. In the eyes of many people, such an accomplishment was quite impressive. For 2 successive years, the company reclaimed the top spot in the Fortune 500 list of successful companies. In other words, it was cited as one of the highest performing companies in the United States. To his credit, Mr. Smith was also cited as one of the brightest minds and one of the most effective CEOs in America. His leadership style was taught as a model in many business schools. However, 3 years after being in office, Mr. Smith had to resign from the company due to personal reasons.

It may be important to mention that during his tenure at the pharmaceutical company, Mr. Smith was very involved in the community of Old Alpine City. His company made it a tradition every year to donate substantial amounts of money to support many school programs. For example, some of the materials donated by Mr. Smith’s organization to schools in OASD included computer equipment and software to facilitate the integration of technology into the classroom, literacy campaign books to encourage reading, book bags offered to students who could not afford one, and Weekend Blessings (i.e., food purchased through business donations to send home in the book bags of students whose families need food for the weekend). In addition, the programs sponsored by the same company comprise the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) initiatives, accelerated reading programs, and field trips. Mr. Smith met the superintendent for the first time during one of the ceremonies organized by the district in recognition of the company for its constant financial support. Mr. Smith, being the CEO of the company during that period, was invited as the keynote speaker for the event. Since then, the two men became friends. It was because of their close relationships that the superintendent strongly encouraged Mr. Smith to apply for the position of principal when the vacancy was advertised 3 years later, which he did.

Mr. Smith’s Recruitment Process as the Principal of Old Alpine High School and the Legal Precedent It Created for the School District

The eight-member OASD Board realized the financial burden and strain that OASD was experiencing. Four of the board members took the initiative to locate a new principal who could help with the financial problems. Their solution came in the form of a shrewd, successful businessman named Mr. Smith. Mr. Smith had a reputation of making hard decisions concerning cutbacks and turning a business around to become profitable. Although Mr. Smith had no previous experience in education, the board members, who advocated for him, felt that his business experience prepared him to handle this situation. With a bit of persuasion, the skeptical half of the board was convinced that hiring Mr. Smith would be for the best.

The hiring of Mr. Smith was unique in the history of OASD. In fact, it was the first time since 1968 that the school district hired someone beyond the guidelines of the recruitment policy that they wrote themselves. This policy required that anyone vying for an administrative position in schools must meet certain criteria such as having a master’s degree in educational leadership or related fields (e.g., courses that cover topics in school finance, educational policy, leadership, and legal issues), demonstrating the ability to exercise the responsibility allocated to the elementary or high school (e.g., this is done very often through administrative internship or field experience), and having the ability to meet the certification requirements of the state where the candidate intends to work. The major goal of the licensure test is to “determine whether or not the individuals possess occupational relevant knowledge and skills at the time of entry into their profession” (Cordeiro & Cunningham, 2013, p. 3).

This precedent may become problematic for the board if it decides to eliminate prospective principal candidates on the same grounds or criteria that they have neglected when hiring Mr. Smith. It may even end up with a legal action.

Mr. Smith’s Contributions to Old Alpine High School as a Principal and Downside

In a short time, Mr. Smith was able to solicit financial support from some key sponsors from the industry with which he was previously associated. Case in point, in just a year after being hired as principal, Mr. Smith was able to collect a two million dollars contribution from the private sector, the highest ever collected by a single administrator in the district for more than four decades. The financial contributions Mr. Smith received allowed him to accomplish many good things for the school.

First, he provided the school with computers and other technological equipment, which were dearly needed by both teachers and students. The goal of such an effort was to enhance the teaching and learning process by integrating technology into the classroom. To assist the teaching and staff members who were not familiar with the use of technology, Mr. Smith signed a 1-year contract with a “Learning Technology Team” that had the responsibility to “bring together instructors, librarians, instructional designers, technical support personnel, and other faculty members who had used technology successfully in their teaching to support the use of technology in a specific course” (Laverty et al., 2003, p. 20). He set some money aside for future technical assistance or support in case it was needed. Mr. Smith’s long-term goal was to enable the administration and staff to use instructional software to maintain and analyze data, access data and information, complete research, integrate teaching and learning, publish student work, and communicate with the community (Cordeiro & Cunningham, 2013).

Second, he established intervention programs to provide extra help for students who were struggling in reading, math, and other core subjects to improve their test scores. The assistance was concerned with hiring tutors, mentors, and advisors to help students after school as well as offering special courses if needed. The main targets of those programs were students from low socio-economic status background, English as second language learners, and those involved in sports, who, as a result, did not have sufficient time to do their homework.

Third, Mr. Smith offered US$40,000 to the Art Department to stimulate creativity in that field. He promised to continue supporting the department for a period of 5 years if he were still the principal. To spend the money more effectively and efficiently, he suggested that management teams be formed whose responsibility would be to assess needs, determine how the money was to be spent, evaluate the progress made, identify the challenges encountered, and make recommendations. The teams would be meeting with him on a regular basis to discuss those issues. Mr. Smith liked order. Therefore, he believed that the best way to achieve goals was through the establishment and implementation of specific rules and regulations.

Fourth, in coordination with the Central Office, he renovated or improved the school grounds and facilities by persuading contractors to donate time and materials in return for positive publicity. Along the same line of thought, he convinced the manager of his previous pharmaceutical company to commit to supporting the school nurse with first aid emergency kits for 5 years.

Fifth, he created a US$50,000 fund designed to encourage and support innovation. Both teachers and students were encouraged to participate in the program. Mr. Smith promised to give awards to those who would distinguish themselves through innovative work. If the program happened to be successful, he planned to organize competitions across the region and, eventually, the entire nation.

Finally, he offered US$30,000 to the Athletic Department to help them buy equipment and accessories that they would need to be competitive. To control how the money was spent in that department, he put in place the same bureaucratic structure that he had requested from the Art Department. Through his actions, Mr. Smith managed to gain some favor with the superintendent. Dr. Hamington was even overheard saying,

As the superintendent I have been rather pleased with Mr. Smith’s progress, in regard to his ability to save the school financially. Mr. Smith has done a great job of bringing in new money. He has ventured out and tapped into some new resources. He has used some of his business acquaintances, who are big education supporters, to help fund the school. The Board of Education and I feel that these new contributors will continue to support the school.

Some parents have noted that the school’s negative reputation in terms of management seemed to be improving. In fact, Jim Thompson, parent of a ninth-grade boy declared,

It was unorganized and looked down upon by nearby schools. Since Mr. Smith has been in charge he has used his business savvy to take this disorganized school and turn it into a well-oiled machine. I like the fact that he has set up obvious chains of command.

Among the teachers who supported Mr. Smith was Ms. Blackwell, a history teacher who stated,

I have been teaching here for 20 years, and in the past few years, I have noticed that some of our teachers are too laid back and are not being very productive. Our math and science test scores have been on a decline for the last 3 years.

Mr. Smith noticed this as well and addressed the problem by establishing high standards for teachers to meet. Teachers who failed to meet these standards were transferred out of Old Alpine. For example, Ms. Blackwell related,

My next door teacher, Mrs. Johnson, is now gone. Her students continued to fail their science tests. Mr. Smith has done a good job of getting rid of some of my lazy colleagues and replacing them with young, energetic teachers who are willing to work.

It was clear that Mr. Smith did a tremendous job in certain aspects of his position. Moreover, he seemed to satisfy the concerns of many Old Alpine constituents.

However, notwithstanding his incredible financial contributions to the school and the district by extension, Mr. Smith managed to make a lot of people angry. In keeping with his industry-based leadership style, he made numerous changes in the school that reflect the industrial model. Now, some parents, community members, and school board members feel that Mr. Smith has become a problem rather than a solution. Mr. Carrington, a teacher who was asked to give his opinion about Mr. Smith, said bluntly to the interviewer, “To be honest with you, I admired Mr. Smith before he became a principal. He was an incredible business leader. He knew that world like the fingers of his hands.” Then, he took some minutes to gather his ideas and added,

However, I should admit that though Mr. Smith is a good manager, he has difficulty transposing his managerial skills to his new job. The old structural mentality he had while he was a business manager seems to be completely at odds with the realities of his new position. You know, Mr. Smith came from an environment where he was used to giving orders or directions. So, he has very few personal contacts with his faculty members. And since he has never taken courses in instructional leadership, he knows very little about what is going on in the classroom. Knowing that the principal is not familiar with the system, we do whatever we like. Some follow the official curriculum while others do not. Consequently, after three years of leadership, despite all his efforts, Mr. Smith has not succeeded in improving the test scores of our students. Old Alpine continues to lag behind the rest of the schools in the district.

In time, the situation became so critical that members of the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) felt it necessary to hold a crisis meeting and discuss the issue. Two days after the meeting, four members of the PTA board, Michael Spartan, Bruce Cabrielli, Andrew Hong, and Ebony Harris, sent a letter to the superintendent and asked him whether they could visit with him. The content of the letter is as follows:

December 25, 2012

Dear Dr. Hamington,

On behalf of the community of Old Alpine, we, members of the PTA board, would like to thank you sincerely for the services you provide for our children. There is no doubt about your outstanding potential and high integrity. The community is grateful for that. However, we would also like to inform you that as parents, we are really worried about, and even exasperated by, the poor academic performance of our children. Since Mr. Smith became principal in Old Alpine High School, things seemed to be deteriorating academically. We think that it is part of our responsibility to help teachers and principals if they are facing problems in their work. We strongly believe that this is the only way we can guarantee the future of our children on the one hand, and the whole community on the other. We would really appreciate it if we could take few minutes of your time to discuss the strategies we need to develop to address this issue. Thank you.

Sincerely,

PTA Board Members.

Dr. Hamington called Mr. Smith into his office the following day. After a few minutes of traditional introductory formalities, Dr. Hamington paused, cleared his throat and said to Mr. Smith, “I called you to inform you that, yesterday, I received a letter from the PTA in which parents explained their concerns about their children’s tests scores.” He handed the letter to Mr. Smith and gave him enough time to read its content. Then, Dr. Hamington continued,

I would also like to remind you that you were assigned to that position mainly because the BOE thought that, with the talent you displayed in leading your previous organization, you would make the difference in that school, which had low test scores. I would be more than happy to offer you my assistance if you would think of any way we could solve this problem.

Due to the urgency of the academic problems at Old Alpine High School, Dr. Hamington forgot that Mr. Smith was initially hired to deal with the school’s financial issues as opposed to raising students’ test scores. Dr. Hamington seemed to ignore the fact that Mr. Smith, to some extent, fulfilled his mission by transforming the declining budget of the school into a surplus.

Mr. Smith became very nervous when he heard the news and started thinking about strategies to save his image and reputation. To solve the problem, he decided to take drastic measures against teachers he felt did not show any sign of commitment. The day after his interview with the superintendent, he called for a faculty meeting and explained to the teachers his intention to make some changes. In his speech, he made an effort to ensure that his message was clearly understood: “I have no doubt that you are aware of the bad performance of our school,” he stammered.“I think we need to change our former bad habits. Otherwise, we have no reason to be here," he added . From now on, each of us will be held accountable for his or her actions, and, if need be, I will recommend termination of the contracts of all probationary or un-tenured teachers who do not improve. Those tenured teachers who do not improve will be reprimanded in writing. The assessment of teachers’ improvement will be made according to the results of the students’ test scores in specific subject areas.

At the end of the school year, Mr. Smith terminated the contract of 30% of his un-tenured teachers and fired two other tenured faculty members. He simply sent a letter to the superintendent and informed him of his decision. Teachers, who were fired, were not given any written notice by the school administration or the BOE informing them about the measure, nor were they given a chance to be heard and defend themselves against the decision. As one can see, in a desperate attempt to hold onto his position, Mr. Smith has forgotten the fundamental and critical notion of employment legal due process as it relates to teachers (Cambron-McCabe, McCarthy, & Thomas, 2004; Valente & Valente, 2005). He did not realize that he had gone too far by deciding to take the law into his own hands. For unknown reasons, the superintendent did not bother to inform him about the legal process.

An extensive body of literature addresses the issue of teachers’ dismissal (Alexander & Alexander, 2009; Cambron-McCabe et al., 2004; Imber & Geel, 2000; Jacobstein, Mersky, & Dunn, 1998; Russo, 2004; Thomas, Sperry, & Wasden, 1998). Some of the aforementioned scholars contend that only the BOE has the authority to terminate the employment of personnel. The case of Pickering v. Board of Education is a concrete example of the matter. Even the BOE needs to provide solid grounds for discharging a teacher. Otherwise, the decision for dismissal may be considered as void in the eyes of the court. As Valente and Valente (2005) pointed out,

Teachers of all ranks may be discharged at any time, with the termination of all employment rights with the employer district, for “just cause” as the phrase is defined by the school statutes. The statutory grounds and procedures for “just cause” dismissal are mandatory, i.e. teachers may not be discharged unless those grounds are established in hearings if the charged teachers request them. Board failure to follow statutory procedures will void a discharge, regardless of the teacher’s alleged misconduct. (p. 173)

Russo (2004) argued that there are many grounds on which teachers can be dismissed by the BOE for cause. These include insubordination, conduct unbecoming a professional, incompetence or neglect of duty, sexual misconduct with students, discipline or corporal punishment, and instructional issues (e.g., when a teacher uses language that many people may perceive as offensive).

Mr. Smith’s action created a legal issue and a climate of tension in the school. Teachers who were fired sued the district and asked for repair of the prejudice to which they were subjected. Those who remained had no trust in the principal’s capacity to lead because he had no experience in the field. They united against Mr. Smith indicating that instead of terminating their colleagues’ contracts, the principal should have organized professional development classes for them and enhanced dialogue between the faculty and the school leadership. Unfortunately, because of Mr. Smith’s limited knowledge of educational organizations, he never thought of alternatives that would help teachers improve.

Discussion Questions

Despite all the negatives concerning Mr. Smith, four board members remained loyal to their choice to hire and keep him. These four individuals claimed that school finances have never looked better and that the teachers only needed time to adjust to Smith’s style. Mr. Smith was a very influential person and established many political ties in the community. It was through these relationships that he has been able to acquire corporate sponsorship for many of the school’s programs. Consequently, they supported his business model and favored his management style. On the contrary, the other half of the board members did not appreciate his often cold and indifferent bureaucratic attitude toward the organization and toward people who may be struggling with their job security. Mr. Smith was very familiar with the bureaucratic model, which involves an elaborate structure and chain of command and places an emphasis on rules and regulations. Mr. Smith has embraced this frame throughout his career in industry.

It seems that Mr. Smith’s saga has put Dr. Hamington in an uncomfortable situation. In other words, with the four–four split vote on the future of Mr. Smith with Old Alpine High School, he was faced with a true dilemma. Because he was the superintendent, he must decide. As a career educator who dedicated the past 25 years of his life to the education of youth, Dr. Hamington truly had the best interest of the students in mind. On one hand, Dr. Hamington could see the improvement Mr. Smith was able to make in the financial situation of the school and the district. In this respect, Dr. Hamington knew that many of the programs offered to the students of Old Alpine High School would certainly be discontinued if they lost the political power and financial prowess of Mr. Smith. At the same time, Dr. Hamington understood that the morale of teachers in Old Alpine High School was at an all-time low due to their working conditions. Dr. Hamington also knew that it might become difficult to fill teacher positions at the school as the word got out concerning Mr. Smith’s leadership style. Finally, there was litigation because of failure to follow due process.

General Questions

If you were the superintendent what would you do? Would you recommend that Mr. Smith be fired or not? Why?

Would Dr. Hamington be placing his own job in jeopardy if he decided to terminate Mr. Smith? Justify your answer.

Can the students’ scores actually improve if Dr. Hamington gives Mr. Smith a few more years so that teachers may adjust to his leadership style?

Can a successful leader in the business arena be a successful leader in a school setting? Why or why not?

Questions Related to Leadership Paradigms

Each leader (Superintendent Hamington, former Principal Jacobson, and new Principal Smith) in the case represents a specific paradigm. Describe and discuss the similarities and differences of the paradigms and match paradigms with leaders.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of each paradigm? Explain your answer.

Based on your experience as a teacher or a leader, which paradigm will be the most appropriate for your organization? Why?

Suppose you are the superintendent of a school district and you are hiring a high school principal. Enumerate the criteria to guide your selection of the principal. Justify why you think those criteria are the most appropriate for the position.

Businesses operate for profit; schools operate to provide a non-profit service. How is the purpose of an organization related to leadership style?

How could Mr. Smith have been helped by the assistant principal, department heads (i.e., specialists in their subject areas), counselors, and athletic directors to overcome his deficiencies in supervising instruction. How does the reader know they did not help him?

School Law Issues

Explain the concept of due process based on the U.S. Constitution and its amendments.

In light of the U.S. Constitution, state (in which OASD is located) due process requirements, and local board policy, describe steps and procedures Dr. Hamington and Mr. Smith should have taken prior to terminating the tenured teachers. References to appropriate Supreme Court decisions will add significance and substance to your answer.

Lesson Plan

How Could This Case Be Used?

Discussion in an introductory leadership class could be enhanced through the use of this case. Leadership paradigms can be investigated and explained through the leaders described in the case.

Different organizations may have different leadership needs at different times. This case can facilitate understanding between profit and non-profit organizations’ needs and between leading a school in good economic times versus difficult economic times.

Time Required and Procedure

The class will be divided into groups with a maximum of three students each to discuss the case study. Each group will select one person who will present the emerging themes or ideas from their discussion to the class. A total of 2 hours will be allocated to the study of the case.

Teaching Notes

The following definitions and references are far from being exhaustive. However, they may serve as additional resources for faculty, students, and practicing and prospective school administrators to have a better understanding of the four leadership theories that have been addressed in the case study.

Leadership Definition

There is a general agreement among scholars that there is no one definition of leadership that can be used as a template for every situation at all times. In other words, there are as many definitions of leadership as the researchers engaged in the study (Hoy & Miskel, 1991; G. W. Yukl, 1994). Some scholars, for instance, view leadership as the process of getting the willing and enthusiastic cooperation of others in accomplishing a desired goal (Bass, 1990a; Jacobs & Jacques, 1990). Others, in contrast, define leadership as the ability to positively influence a group toward the achievement of set goals (Katz & Kahn, 1978; Northouse, 2010). Burns (1976) argued that “leadership over human beings is exercised when persons with certain motives and purposes mobilize in competition or conflict with others, institutional, political, psychological, and other resources so as to arouse, engage, and satisfy the motives of followers” (p. 18). Finally, for Hosking (1988); Cunningham and Cordeiro (2000), the main purpose of leadership is to guide improvement and infuse an organization with meaning and purpose.

Additional readings

Bennis

(1995a). The art form of leadership. In Wren

(Ed.), The leader’s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (pp. 377-378). New York, NY: Free Press.

Fielder

F. E.

(1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Leithwood

Duke

I. D.

(1999). A century’s quest to understand school leadership. In Murphy

I. J.

Lewis

K. S.

(Eds.), Handbook of research on educational administration (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Management Definition

G. W. Cunningham and Cordeiro (2000) defined management as one of the two aspects of the administrative responsibility that is involved with stewardship and accountability for all types of resources. In this regard, managerial activities are essentially focused on implementing routines in an organization and ensuring its smooth operations. Daft (1999), however, viewed management as a process of organizing a structure to accomplish a predetermined plan. This process consists of staffing the structure with employees and developing policies, procedures, and systems to guide employees and monitor the execution of the plan. Green (2013) made the case that the managerial process is sometimes good for the stability, predictability, order, and efficiency of the organization. Both Daft and Green believe that good management helps the organization to consistently achieve its short-term results and meet the expectations of various stakeholders. The two major types of management are the scientific management and administrative management (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2007; Yukl, 1994).

Additional readings

Drucker

F. P.

(2007). Management: Tasks, responsibilities, practices. New York, NY: Transaction Publishers.

Fayol

(1949). General and industrial administration. New York, NY: Pitman. (Originally published in French in 1916 with the title Administration industrielle et generale)

Gulick

Urwick

(Eds.). Papers on science of administration. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Maslow

(1970). Motivation and personality (Rev. ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Taylor

F. W.

(1911). Principles of scientific management. New York, NY: Harper.

Weber

(1947). The theory of social and economic organization ( Parsons

Trans.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Characteristics of Leaders and Managers

Bennis and Nanus (2007) made a clear distinction between a manager and a leader when they stated that “a manager does the thing right; a leader does the right thing” (p. 35). One way to interpret this statement is that whereas a manager is concerned about carrying out policy, maintaining organizational stability, and dealing with day-to-day operations¹ of the job, a leader is mainly focused on formulating a policy, dealing with organizational change and strategic planning, and other more dynamic processes of the work (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2007). The leader possesses the vision, rhetorical skills, and ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue an organization’s goals. The manager, in contrast, has high integrity, strong technical, interpersonal, conceptual, and administrative skills to influence employees to get the job done. Before making any decision, the leader consults with followers, solicits their suggestions, and takes those suggestions into consideration whereas the manager strongly believes in the idea that employees inherently dislike work and must be coerced, controlled, guided, and threatened to work toward the organization’s goals. Therefore, the manager relies heavily on the position power of the hierarchy and chains of command to dictate orders to subordinates (Guthrie & Schuermann, 2010; Yukl, 1994).

Additional readings

Coleman

Boyzatzis

McKee

(2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

Deal

E. T.

Peterson

D. K.

(2000). The leadership paradox: Balancing logic and artistry in schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Managerial Leadership

Managerial leadership is one of the key models of the traditional or classic theory of organizational leadership. As delineated earlier, such type of leadership is primarily concerned with the efficiency and effectiveness of work in an organization. It focuses on responsibilities, tasks, and behaviors of the leader (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2007). It is based on the assumption that if the functions are performed competently, the work of others in the organization will be facilitated.

Distributed Leadership

The focus of distributed leadership as Spillane (2006) pointed out is on “the interactions of school leaders, followers, and aspects of their situation such as structures, tools and organizational routines” (p. 3). In other words, distributed leadership is an approach that involves dispersing school leadership functions across social and situational contexts. To enhance the academic achievement of each student, distributed leaders share aspects of the instructional program among multiple formal and informal leaders or team members in the school including principals, curriculum specialists, and classroom teachers (Green, 2013; Guthrie & Schuermann, 2010; Hulpia, Devos, & Rosseel, 2009).

Additional readings

Bennett

Harvey

Wise

Woods

(2003). Desk study review of distributive Leadership. Nottingham, UK: National College for School Leadership.

D’entremont

Norton

Bennett

Piazza

(2012). Charting the course: Four years of the Thomas W. Payzant School on the move prize. Journal of Education, 192(2/3), 3-12.

Meyer

MacMillan

Northfield

(2009). Principal succession and its impact on teacher morale. Leadership in Education, 12(2), 171-185.

Murphy

Smylie

Mayrowetz

Louis

(2009). The role of the principal in fostering the development of distributed leadership. School Leadership & Management, 29, 181-214.

Transformational Leadership

Transformation leadership is a process that challenges and transforms people. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals including assessing followers’ motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings (Green, 2013; Guthrie & Schuermann, 2010; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2007). It involves an exception form of influence that inspires, energizes, and intellectually stimulates employees or followers to accomplish more than what are usually expected of them (Bass, 1990b ). It incorporates charismatic, cultural, and visionary leadership (Green, 2013). The transformational leader plays a pivotal role in precipitating change, but followers and leaders are inextricably bound together in the transformation process. The leader connects with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in the leader and the follower. Burns (1978) contended that “transforming leadership ultimately becomes moral in that it raises the level of ethical aspiration of both leaders and led, and thus has a transforming effect on both” (p. 20). Burns also identifies four primary dimensions of transformational leadership including charisma or idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration or attention.

Transactional Leadership

Guthrie and Schuermann (2010) defined transactional leadership as a theory of leadership that “identifies the leaders as the articulator of expectations and goals and the provider of recognition and rewards when a task is completed” (p. 41). Put another way, transactional leaders exchange things of value with subordinates to advance their own and their subordinates’ agendas or encourage desired behaviors. They are influential because it is in the best interest of the subordinates to follow (Green, 2013; Guthrie & Schuermann, 2010). Transactional leaders do not individualize the needs of subordinates or focus on their personal development (Bass, 1990b ). The two primary components of the theory include contingent reward and management by exception.

Additional Readings for Transformational and Transactional Leaderships

Bass

B. M.

(1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press.

Bass

B. M.

(1997). Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries? American Psychologist, 52, 130-139.

Bass

B. M.

(1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bass

B. M.

Avolio

B. J.

(1990). The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for individual, team, and organizational development. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4, 231-272.

Bass

B. M.

Avolio

B. J.

Atwater

(1996). The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45, 5-34

Bennis

Nanus

(1985) Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. Harper & Row.

Kouzes

M. J.

Postner

Z. B.

(1987). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in organizations. Jossey-Bass.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Kenneth Stern and Dr. Edwards Harris both in the Department of Educational Leadership at Oklahoma State University, Dr. Tracy Linderholm Associate Dean at Georgia Southern University, and Dr. Bryan Parr in the Department of Curriculum and Teaching at Auburn University for their insightful and constructive inputs associated with this case: Editing, ideas, suggestions, comments and legal content.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Author Biography

Mohomodou Boncana is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Leadership, Technology, and Human Development at Georgia Southern University. He was a Barbara Jackson Scholar. His research interests focus on leadership theories, organizational change and organizational culture.

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