Abstract
This fictional case study examines crisis response in higher education settings. Information about current crisis response procedures, plans, and trends was gathered from informational interviews, current crisis management literature, and multiple college and university websites. The information was synthesized into a fictional case study using Zdziarski, Rollo, and Dunkel’s crisis matrix as a framework for discussion and analysis. The case examines the response of a mid-level administrator and the far-reaching implications of an active shooter crisis on campus. The case study allows flexibility so that multiple roles can be considered in an institutional response plan. The case is designed to provide administrators guidance in creating a crisis response team, a chance to reflect on their current understanding of crisis management and a review of the crisis management cycle.
Background Information
Viberg College is a residential, 4-year public institution that was founded in 1938 and is located in Quincy, South Dakota. Viberg has 13,000 undergraduate students and 2,500 graduate students. Viberg offers more than 100 bachelor’s degree programs and more than 50 graduate programs and is known for its rigorous agriculture, engineering, and mathematics programs. The majority of students are South Dakota residents, while out-of-state students make up 8% to 10% of the student body and international students account for 3% to 5%.
Viberg’s Preparedness for a Crisis
Viberg College utilizes a Crisis Management Team (CMT) to respond to crisis situations. The team includes many professionals across the institution including the Dean of Students, Chief of Police, Emergency Case Manager, Director of Communications, Director of Residence Life, and the Director of Student Counseling. A brief explanation of the duties of each member of the team is found in the appendix.
The CMT exists to carry out Viberg’s crisis management plan in the event of a crisis. The CMT achieves this goal by continually assessing policies and procedures and utilizing the expertise of professionals in various functional areas to prevent and prepare for crises. The CMT conducts annual tabletop exercises to simulate realistic crises and consider the action steps and response tactics necessary to handle the situations. In addition, the CMT works to educate its members and the campus community on a continual basis about the changing nature of campus crises, and how to identify strengths and weaknesses of the institutional response plan.
Case Study Narrative
Introduction
After several years of fundraising and construction, a new student union recently opened at Viberg College. The building hosted multiple restaurants, a bowling alley, meeting rooms, offices, common areas, and was one of the largest buildings on campus. Students had acclimated to the space readily during the first 2 weeks of the semester and the building was typically crowded.
A dedication ceremony and an open house were set for 12:00 p.m. on the third Saturday of the fall semester and many prominent speakers were scheduled to attend. The College Chancellor and First Gentleman, several members of the Board of Trustees, and the Mayor of Quincy were all scheduled to speak, along with performances by the student marching band and vocal performance groups. Anticipating a large crowd for the opening ceremony and open house, the Viberg College and Quincy Police Departments had coordinated training and schedules to adequately staff the event. However, when it comes to emergency preparedness and response, the idea that one can never fully prepare for an incident rings true. The same held true for Viberg in the aftermath of the crisis that unfolded during the student union opening ceremony.
The Crisis
The student union was open 24 hr a day, 7 days a week for all Viberg College students. With no security system yet in place on the roof or grounds, three men entered the building undetected before dawn and waited quietly for the opening ceremonies to begin. Roughly 30 min before the opening ceremony, the three men disabled the building phone and Internet connections. After the opening ceremony concluded and the Chancellor officially opened the student union for tours, two of the men threw a smoke bomb to limit visibility in the crowd of attendees touring the main entrance. They began shooting indiscriminately into the crowd. The remaining man threw smoke bombs and fired into the crowd on the second floor of the building. The entire attack lasted roughly 6 min. Within the first 2 min of the attack, 30 people were injured. By the end of the attack, 64 were injured and 11 had died.
Discovery of the Crisis
Dede was a mid-level student affairs professional who recently took a step up in her career to manage the new student union at Viberg College. Dede was anxious for the opening ceremony in her building, as hundreds of people would be touring the building throughout the day. Dede reached for her office phone to call the catering manager for a quick question, but noticed the phone screen was blank and there was no dial tone. Dede knew the Information Technology (IT) help line phone number by heart and as she dialed for the third time with a busy signal on her cell phone, Dede could not figure out what was wrong. She looked across her desk and realized she had not received any email notifications on her computer for several minutes, which was very unusual. Dede tried to visit the IT services website to report the phone outage and discovered the Internet was also down.
Unsure of how to proceed with a crowd of a few hundred coming into her building shortly, Dede tried to remember where her policy and procedure manual was to see whether there was any information on what to do in this situation. While searching for the manual, Dede realized the time and decided she would have to talk with the catering manager in the kitchen. Dede grabbed her suit jacket, keys, and cell phone, and locked her office as she walked toward the first floor kitchen. She decided to check in with her food service staff before the tours began. Dede was delayed on her way to see the catering manager because she was helping to finalize food displays and answer last minute questions from her student and professional staff. As the tours started, Dede decided to stop quickly in the restroom to double-check her appearance before mingling with the crowd. For a brief moment, Dede enjoyed the silence of the restroom. After several seconds, she could now only hear a profound silence in the building and a feeling of uneasiness set in instantly. Dede figured she was just anxious given the anticipation of the day, but as she left the restroom, Dede heard an explosion, followed by screams and several booming sounds that she realized were gunshots.
After building a career around how to be an effective manager, how to motivate and lead people, and how to serve students as an administrator, Dede froze; she had read a few articles about campus crises, but never imagined she would be in a campus shooter situation and had not yet established any crisis response procedures in the student union. Dede began to panic and stumbled back into the restroom, closed the door, and began to sob as she heard continuous gunshots. Dede was not sure whether she should be out helping people or trying to stay away from the shooters. Dede hurried into a bathroom stall and noticed her cell phone had service. She frantically dialed 911 and explained that there was a shooter in the building. The emergency dispatcher explained that first responder officers were currently assessing the scene and the first notification of the shootings came in from officers staffing the opening ceremony only a moment ago. The 911 dispatcher kept Dede on the line because she knew the building floor plan and could assist the dispatcher as officers made their way through the building.
As Dede spoke with the dispatcher, she was informed that two gunmen had been disarmed and detained on the first floor, but police believed more gunmen were in the building. The injured count continued to grow and was already at 30 when officers detained an additional gunman on the second floor of the building. Police believed the attack was now over and the excruciating work of finding injured and deceased crowd members began.
Dede got the all clear to exit the restroom and police escorted her to an empty conference room. The room would serve as a control center for Viberg College administrators and Quincy emergency responders to plan and orchestrate the recovery phase of the crisis. Dede found the professional staff who report to her and they began moving through the building to find all Viberg College employees and determine whether they were among the injured or deceased. Police officially closed the building for investigation and asked all non-staff members to evacuate to a safe area that had been set up outside the building. Dede ordered all Viberg College employees to stay in the building for debriefing and to assist the police officers, firefighters, paramedics, and campus administrators who were managing the response.
The Aftermath
Over the course of the next few days, Dede met with the CMT to assist in the crisis response efforts where appropriate and to help restore some semblance of normalcy to the building. Dede met with her staff to determine what events needed to be moved, rescheduled, or cancelled in her building. The CMT was also charged with the complexity of whether and where to hold a memorial on campus for those who were killed. In times of celebration, the student union was a place to gather, but because the union was the site of the recent shootings, Viberg College administrators faced a unique challenge in finding a location to honor the victims in this tragedy where 64 were injured and 11 lost their lives. Logistical issues such as communicating with police, media, staff, and students in her own building were overwhelming and the next few days became a blur to Dede, as she had not gone home to rest or eat a proper meal since the attack. After many days of continual meetings, media briefings, and little sleep, Dede met with her direct supervisor. Dede was strongly encouraged by her supervisor to go home and take care of herself so she could come back and continue helping others without getting burned out or ill.
Several weeks after the shooting, Dede called a meeting with the CMT to think of ways she and other mid- to senior-level administrators could provide education and information on what to do in a crisis. Dede also planned to collaborate with the human resources department to determine what the expectations were for professionals in administrative roles when handling crises.
Like most people, Dede never imagined that she would be involved in such a catastrophe in her career. She had become better informed on how to prepare for and respond to crises and continued to share this knowledge with others, hoping that no more innocent people were killed in a campus shooting. Although investigation of the incident was progressing slowly and people continued to heal, Dede knew the shooting would affect the campus and anyone involved in the shootings for the rest of their lives.
Teaching Notes
This fictional case study examines the issues of emergency preparedness and crisis response, as well as the complexities associated with providing adequate training and resources for faculty and staff in a higher education setting. It may be particularly useful for courses in educational leadership or student affairs preparation programs. In the case, a campus experiences a crisis event and the response process is seen through the perspective of a mid-level administrator. Although only one person’s role is detailed in the case, any campus crisis response is a collaborative effort. In this case, the immediate response to contain the crisis, as well as the long-term response to promote community healing, required members of Viberg College’s CMT, other campus employees, the campus police department, and local emergency responders.
The sections below cover specific topics, resources, and training materials to consider when forming crisis response teams. Discussion questions are included to help readers examine these topics
Foundational Resources
Campus leadership teams face increased pressure related to campus safety and crisis response, particularly after the mass shootings at Virginia Polytechnic Institute (Virginia Tech) on April 16, 2007. Concerned educators with the Association of American Universities (AAU, 2007) responded to the tragedy by administering a survey of institutions across the country. The survey results include responses from 42 institutions, “to ensure that AAU universities can learn from the positive steps that other universities are taking, for the benefit of all” (p. 1). The survey provides educators a resource to begin learning more about the topic of campus crisis management and response.
Reason and Lutovsky (2007) provide,
a jump-start for new administrators by identifying resources commonly available during times of crisis . . . we hope to encourage campus administrators to be proactive, by seeking out and building relationships with professionals on campus or joining professional organizations external to campus, before a crisis occurs. (p. 241)
The proactive approach of this article is an excellent resource for educators who are interested and involved in crisis management. It provides specific steps and guidance to those just getting started thinking about crises, but can serve as a great refresher for seasoned crisis management professionals.
Zdziarski et al. (2007) text serves as a fundamental resource for educators in a variety of contexts. The text consists of four parts including understanding crisis management, crisis management in practice, lessons from crisis management, and maintaining a crisis management focus to aid educators in developing and maintaining effective crisis response teams and plans. This text is commonly used in higher education crisis management courses, and can be used to guide discussion and training efforts in many contexts, even beyond educational settings.
Creating Effective Teams
Campus crisis response plans and protocols are only as effective as those involved in developing these resources. To ensure the success of institutional efforts to improve crisis planning and response, focused attention to building effective teams is necessary. McCauley and Powell (2007) outline the importance of developing an effective response in their article, which highlights the reality that effective response to crises must be coordinated among many areas to be successful.
In their 2008 text, Deisinger, Randazzo, O’Neill, and Savage provide a detailed and engaging resource for those establishing a crisis response team for the first time. This handbook is a step-by-step guide that educators can use to develop a crisis response team and management plan from the beginning. Of note are the “decision points” throughout the text. These points ask simple and potentially overlooked questions to keep teams on task when developing resources. The text guides teams through assessing threats and how to respond appropriately. Institutions with an existing team may identify areas of improvement on reviewing the standards established in this handbook.
The Crisis Matrix and the Crisis Management Cycle
When institutions create a crisis response plan and team for the first time, or work to improve an existing plan, it is helpful to identify the types of incidents that may occur. In developing the crisis matrix, Zdziarski et al. (2007) state, “it becomes instructive to develop a taxonomy of types of events that allows administrators to conceptualize appropriate responses to a variety of incidents” (p. 35). Although the possibilities of crises are endless, understanding the crisis matrix assists educators in developing carefully thought out response plans in the interest of improving campus safety. To further enhance understanding and response to crises, Zdziarski et al. (2007) introduced a five-phase crisis management cycle: planning, prevention, response, recovery, and learning. Zdziarski et al. (2007) acknowledge that “effective crisis management means more than simply responding or reacting to a crisis event. Instead, it involves administrators taking thoughtful, planned, and deliberate actions before, during, and after a crisis event” (p. 46). The information below will aid readers in learning more about crisis management planning.
Planning
It is important for institutions to plan for crises so that when they arise, university officials are prepared to respond effectively. Typically, universities establish written plans or outlines that cover logistical information such as types of crises, possible responses, and which professional positions would be involved in the response plan. The plan is disseminated in a way the crisis management office (or coordinator of crisis planning) deems fit. Examples include campus websites and informational booklets.
Prevention
As Zdziarski et al. (2007) state,
Knowing the types of incidents that a campus is likely to experience, such as large-scale events, weather incidents, and the possibility of exterior threats . . . can provide opportunities to avoid serious incidents from happening or at least mitigate their impact. (p. 48)
In addition, identifying resources and implementing safeguards can help prevent certain crises from occurring, as well as aid during times of crisis.
Response
It is important that, during the planning stage, clear expectations are communicated about who will respond, when they will respond, and where they will respond. Rubin and Jurow (2012) stress the importance of communication and information technology as it relates to gathering and disseminating information as a part of the planning process and in the implementation process. The use of social media and technology is common, including emergency message alert systems, which notify enrollees via text and/or email, along with Twitter and other social media sites. Developing and maintaining a coordinated communication effort will help institutions communicate effectively during times of crisis for a successful recovery.
Recovery
After any crisis, tension is high. In an effort to get institutions back to a “normal” state, recovery is necessary. During the recovery stage, the focus is on healing and resuming a sense of normalcy. Communication often revolves around post-crisis counseling and a return to pre-crisis policies and operations. Closure events, memorials, permanent recognitions, and other ceremonial events provide wonderful opportunities to share healing processes and bring communities back together with the purpose of moving forward and putting the tragedy in the past.
Learning
After a crisis, it is also important for institutions to debrief the crisis responders, in efforts to learn from the successes and failures in responding to crises adequately. Rubin and Jurow (2012) suggest the practice of pilot projects and tabletop exercises, which can “help identify attributes and problems with the identification and implementation of useful new policies and procedures” (p. 22). Such feedback is valuable in making amendments and future revisions of a crisis management plan.
Discussion
Groups using this case study may find it constructive to have participants assume a specific staff role when answering the questions below.
Consider the key role you may play in the College response and recovery to a crisis of this magnitude.
What actions will you take based on your identified role and the role you play on the crisis response team? How will your response differ if you are not on the crisis response team and do not have training in crisis response?
How can policies and procedures be best communicated to invested parties such as faculty, staff, and students beyond traditional means such as on a website or via text message alert?
What resources might you use during the crisis event and response? Who do you contact? Where do you obtain the necessary resources? How do you fund necessary purchases?
If the Dean of Students is not in town, who becomes the chief decision maker or communicator? Does the current crisis response plan rely too heavily on one person for response in a crisis?
How would you improvise during the time that telephone and Internet connections were down? What would be your plan of action? How does this affect the plan of communication and release of information?
Does the response to this crisis change based on the identity of the shooter? Is the shooter a current or former student or employee? What if the shooter has no known ties to the institution?
What if the alarm system is disabled? What questions does the security breach bring up about campus safety?
How will you support your staff to help students, faculty, staff, or anyone involved in this crisis? How do you support and care for yourself? How do you encourage others to practice self-care?
How can students learn more about their own safety and being prepared in a crisis?
Footnotes
Appendix
Acknowledgements
Both authors wish to extend their appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Mahauganee D. Shaw for her knowledge and guidance through this process.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.