Physical Activity and Associated Constraints Following the Transition From High School to University

Abstract

The considerable changes in physical activity (PA) during the transition to university are likely associated with changes in PA constraints during this transition. The purpose of this study was to examine changes in PA and associated constraints among first-year university students during the transition to university. Data concerning sociodemographic characteristics, PA behaviors, and changes in PA and constraints were collected from 121 first-year New Zealand university students via an online survey. Data were analyzed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Findings revealed that following the transition, PA declined significantly, that PA participation patterns/trends had changed (from team/group sports to individual activities and to less competitive and/or more social activities), and that changes in constraints (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and time management) may have influenced changes. Findings shed light on how changes in constraints potentially influence PA following the transition and provide evidence to inform the development of policies and interventions to promote student PA.

Keywords

Wellbeing exercise barriers constraints theory New Zealand

Similar to postsecondary students from around the world (Wilson, Panza et al., In press), many New Zealand (NZ) students participate in insufficiently physical activity (Sport New Zealand, 2020). Around the world PA declines significantly during the transition from high school to college (Bray & Born, 2004; Deforche et al., 2015; Han et al., 2008); a period during which unfavorable changes in body composition (Fedewa et al., 2014) and other health behaviors (Wilson, Galascio et al., 2019) have been observed. Adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension and obesity, are already evident among this age group (Wilson, Zou et al., 2019; Kamara et al., 2019). In addition, the mental health of college students is an area of increasing concern, particularly in the United States (US) (Center for Collegiate Mental Health, 2019). PA offers a means to protect against both unfavorable/adverse physical (Ekelund et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2012) and mental health (Gordon et al., 2018; Stubbs et al., 2018) outcomes. As such, this transition is an important time to intervene, as the health enhancing behaviors individuals adopt as student can influence such behaviors later in life (Wilson, Matthews et al., 2020; Sparling & Snow, 2002).

PA can reduce the risk of developing noncommunicable diseases associated with the aforementioned risk factors (Lee et al., 2012), as well as reduce the risk of mental health issues (McDowell et al., 2019; Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019; Schuch et al., 2018). In addition, PA offers a number of benefits to tertiary education institutions, including improved student recruitment and retention (Belch et al., 2001; Henchy, 2013; Lindsey & Sessoms, 2006; Miller, 2011) and academic engagement (Belch et al., 2001; Moffitt, 2010).

Understanding how PA constraints change during the transition to university would help to inform PA promotion efforts. Constraints are factors, perceived or actually experienced by individuals, that inhibit or limit PA participation and/or enjoyment (Jackson, 2000). Constraints are specific to each individual (Young et al., 2003) and can be perceived/experienced in varying combinations and intensities (Jackson, 2000). Moreover, constraints are dynamic and vary significantly depending on the social, cultural, and historical context (Godbey et al., 2010; Young et al., 2003).

There is a consensus within the international (China, Greece, Mauritius, US) literature that the primary PA constraints tend to revolve around a lack of time. This is mainly due to academic demands, work, or family, and to a lesser extent other more sedentary leisure activities (Chan Sun & Azmutally, 2013; Chung et al., 2013; Qianyu & Ross, 2014; Shifman et al., 2011; Young et al., 2003). Other important constraints perceived by students are a lack of pertinent knowledge or information (Masmanidis et al., 2009; Masmanidis et al., 2015; Young et al., 2003); a lack of partners to participate with (Chung et al., 2013; Hashim, 2012; Shifman et al., 2011); and, access to facilities and quality services (Hashim, 2012; Masmanidis et al., 2009, 2015; Qianyu & Ross, 2014).

While studies have been conducted globally, little is known about NZ students’ PA constraints, or how PA constraints change during the transition from high school to university. There are key differences between NZ and the US, where much of the research regarding college student PA is conducted (Wilson, Panza et al., In press), including that collegiate (i.e. varsity level) athletics do not exist on the scale in NZ as they do in the US. Competitions between institutions are typically limited to a single brief annual event for sports, with club sports serving as pathways for sustained sport participation. Even so, in NZ many students will join sports clubs that are not associated with the university, and in fact compete against the university clubs. Similarly, many students use gyms and fitness facilities outside of those provided by universities. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the changes in PA and associated constraints following the transition to university, and in particular which constraints emerge as the most important following this transition. In particular, this study sought to answer: how PA participation (type and level) changed following the transition; how constraints changed following the transition; and. which constraints are greatest following the transition.

Method

Context, Procedures, Participants

Data were collected via an online survey distributed to all first-year undergraduates at University of Canterbury, NZ aged over 18 years who had left high school the preceding year. Complete responses were received from 121 students. The Auckland University of Technology Human Ethics Committee approved this study.

Instrument

The questionnaire collected information on participant sociodemographic characteristics and PA (hours/week) as both a university student, and as a high school student (retrospectively). Students were presented with two open-ended questions, as follows, asking them to describe changes in their PA and constraints following the transition: “Following the transition from high school to university how did:

– your participation in physical activity change?

– the constraints/barriers/obstacles to physical activity change?”

Data Analyses

Descriptive statistics were computed to describe the sample. Independent samples t-tests were used to examine differences in hours of PA as a university student compared to when a high school student. Students were classified as physically active if they met the 150 min/week recommended by the NZ Ministry of Health (2018). A McNemar test was used to examine whether the number of students classified as physically active differed between high school and university.

With respect to qualitative data analyses, though questions pertained to specific areas of interest, analysis was conducted within a constructionist framework that considered responses by individuals across the whole data set to enable inclusion of individual accounts within the context of sociocultural and structural conditions (Braun & Clarke, 2006). An inductive, rather than theoretical, approach was adopted to allow themes to develop without trying to fit them into a pre-existing coding frame (Ezzy, 2002).

Results

Participant Demographics

The overall mean age of participants was 18.72 ± 0.45 years. Only two students (one man, one woman) were international students, the remainder were domestic students. The majority of students resided in university accommodation (59.5%; Table 1).

Table 1.

Participant Characteristics.

Demographics		n	%
Sex	Male	61	50.4
Sex	Female	60	49.6
Ethnicity	NZ European/Pakeha	88	72.7
	NZ European/Pakeha & NZ Māori	15	12.4
	NZ European/Pakeha & Pasifika	6	5.0
	Asian	8	6.6
	Other	4	3.3
College	Arts	15	12.4
	Education	7	5.8
	Engineering	53	43.8
	Commerce	18	14.9
	Law	6	5.0
	Science	22	18.2
Living situation	University Accommodation	72	59.5
	Flatting	12	9.9
	Parental/Guardians home	32	23.4
	Own Home	3	2.5
	Home stay	2	1.7
Physical disability		11	9.1
First in family		35	28.9
Employed		49	40.5
Volunteer		45	37.2

Note. n = 121.

Physical Activity changes

PA declined significantly from 9.22 ± 6.27 hrs/wk at high school, to 5.84 ± 5.28 hrs/wk at university (p < .001, η² = 0.28), and significantly fewer students met PA recommendations at university (73.6%) compared to high school (84.3%, p = .024)

Physical Activity Trends

A change in PA forms/preferences emerged as a dominant theme from thematic analysis. Within this theme, there were two sub themes: (1) a shift from participation in team/group sports to participation in individual physical activities, such as the gym and/or running; and, (2) a shift to less competitive and/or more social forms of sport.

The shift to individual physical activities was primarily expressed by women, such as one woman who commented: “I participated in more independent physical activity such as running and going to the gym rather than playing team sports.” In addition, “I worked out alone more,” and “now I just exercise on my own as opposed to in groups/teams”, were comments made by two other women. Another woman described both a shift to more individual activities and a reduction in competitiveness when offering the following comment: participation “decreased slightly and competing at a lower level to maintain a better social life and sufficient time for study. Changed from team-based sports to more individual fitness at the gym.”

Though several women made comments relating to a shift to less competitive and/or more social forms of sport, it was mainly men, such as the one who offered the following statement, who described this change:

Throughout secondary school I participated in competitive sports, which required a lot of commitment. During university I found that taking part in competitive sports was very time consuming and didn’t let you have time to socialise and study. Therefore I participated in social sports, which did not take as much of my time.

Analyses revealed that changes in participation patterns/preferences were also associated with constraints related to cost, i.e. a lack of money, and the affordability of certain activities. For example, some were constrained by the expense of activities, as demonstrated by the comment: “fees for hockey teams are too expensive” (man) Students also described how their ability to participate had been impacted following the transition to personally paying rather than having schools or parents meet costs. For example, one woman described how she “put more thought into joining teams etc. because they are no longer funded by school or parents.”

Changes in Constraints

Time constraints, and changes in priorities were the dominant time related themes that emerged. Time constraints related to a lack of time in general, and a lack of time due to study, social, and work commitments. With respect to changes in priorities following the transition, most described prioritizing studies over PA, while social commitments were also frequently prioritized over PA. The following comment made by a woman highlights such a change:

My first priority was to my degree and so studying was most important to me. This meant I had less time to spare for sports and physical activities particularly during the end of semesters when all the assignments became due…Also, time became more of a constraint, as I had to take my studies more seriously and spend more time on them than I had previously in [high] school.

A lack of information emerged as another constraint that increased following the transition, multiple students commenting it was difficult to acquire pertinent information, and this seemed particularly important for those who had attended private or independent high schools. The lack of information constraint is encapsulated by the following comment made by a woman:

Information about sports is not as widely available…At school, it was easier to get involved as information was easier accessed e.g. newsletters and assemblies, so at university my participation levels pretty much dropped to zero as I had to go looking for the information…At university students have to seek out information regarding sports, so as I did not do this I did not participate unless a friend pushed me to.

Intrapersonal constraints relating to interest/motivation, and physical and mental health emerged as prominent constraints. With respect to health, a variety of unique chronic physical health issues, such as concussions and broken bones, were mentioned as constraints. Tiredness or a lack of energy contributed to procrastination and lower levels of motivation. Stress and anxiety also emerged as constraints that prevented enjoyment and willingness to be physically active. For example, a man commented that: “stress of studies prevent enjoyment of participation.” Moreover, a woman noted that: “increased anxiety decreased willingness to participate.” Interpersonal constraints also emerged as a theme, and mainly revolved around a lack of partners. This was due to being socially isolated and not knowing anyone or peers’ disinterest in PA. The following comment encapsulate these constraints: “less people getting involved, and more lazy people made it harder to just spontaneously get out and do something” (man) and “my motivation ceased due to a lack of friends to participate with” (woman) Such constraints were most prevalent among those living on-campus in university accommodation.

Finally, on-campus university accommodation residents frequently mentioned the absence of personal transport as a constraint to PA. A women residing in on-campus accommodation located just over a kilometre from the university recreation centre commented: “being female made it harder as I had time to work out at night but if I was by myself it wasn’t safe to walk back in the dark.” While a male university resident made the following comment:

Instead of walking or getting driven to practices and campus, the distance of my hall of residence and the lack of a car meant bussing was my only dependable mode of transportation to university (45 min commute)…My location of residence made it difficult to make commitments to regular sport practices and meetings.

Discussion

Consistent with previous research (Bray & Born, 2004; Deforche et al., 2015; Han et al., 2008), a significant decline in PA was observed following the transition to university. In addition to a decline in PA, two main trends in PA participation patterns/preferences emerged from qualitative analyses. One was shift from participation in team/group sports to participation in individual physical activities, such as the gym and/or running that was observed primarily among women. The second was a shift to less competitive and/or more social forms of sport that was observed predominantly among men. Findings suggest that these changes were, in part, influenced by changes in constraints, in particular those associated with cost and transport. It is important appreciate the contextual differences from other countries such as the US when considering these changes. Unlike the US, continuation of participation in competitive sports takes place at a club rather than collegiate level, and many students join and represent clubs that are external to the university. This means that participation in sports at a university level does not necessarily offer the same level of convenience as afforded to students in the US who have opportunities to continue to participate in sports located on-campus, whether at varsity or club level. The main similarity between the US and NZ is that intramural sports and campus recreational facilities are on offer in both countries, though the facilities, both indoors and outdoors, of the US are typically superior.

The main constraints that emerged from qualitative analyses were, for the most part, consistent with those reported previously (Masmanidis et al., 2009; Masmanidis et al., 2015; Spivey & Hritz, 2013; Young et al., 2003). Unsurprisingly, time emerged as a dominant theme. However, it is worth noting that a change in priorities emerged as a distinct theme associated with time constraints, with many students describing prioritizing studies and, to a lesser extent socializing, over PA. In reality, for much of the year, perhaps with the exception of exam period, most students should have the time to comfortably take care of their studies and other commitments as well as be physically active. However, routines become more irregular following the transition, students often end up with more unstructured time, and time management becomes more important.

A lack of, or difficulty acquiring, pertinent information about PA opportunities was also frequently mentioned, in particular by those who had attended integrated or private schools. This may be because students were used to being provided with such information, as indicated by one who commented: “I had to go out and find out about the sports for myself, rather than having the sports information being given to me.” Students frequently described interpersonal constraints, mainly those concerning a lack of partners due to not knowing anyone, or their peers’ disinterest in participation. A lack of interest/motivation emerged as an important constraint, despite being one of the less important constraints in most other studies (Gyurcsik et al., 2004; Gyurcsik et al., 2006; Montasser et al., 2011; Tsai & Coleman, 2007). Students also mentioned how health constraints, mainly pre-existing issues as well as mental health constraints such as stress and anxiety, had constrained PA.

Practical Implications

Findings reinforce the importance of alleviating the perception and/or facilitating the negotiation of constraints (Wilson, Walters et al., 2019), in particular time constraints. Institutions should consider both educating students on time management and making it easier for students to manage their time. This could be achieved by understanding when students want to be physically active and ensuring that facilities and programs are accessible at preferred times. Institutions should also ensure that students understand their studies do not have to be prioritized at the expense of being active, and that PA can benefit and mental health (Cahuas et al., 2020) and therefore academic performance (Hartley, 2011). Finally, the emergence of a lack of information as a major constraint highlights the importance that pertinent information regarding opportunities to be physically active is promoted and accessible. Campus recreation staff and departments may want to consider how they can partner/collaborate with other departments on campus (e.g. student health centres, counselling and psychological services, relevant academic departments, etc.) who are often, and can play, an important part of physical activity and wellbeing promotion on college campuses (Wilson et al., 2018).

Limitations and Future Research Recommendations

Limitations of this study include generalizability, the use of self-reported measures, and the cross-sectional design. Findings suggest that further qualitative research examining how constraints vary based on sociodemographic characteristics, and the intersection of characteristics, would be valuable. In addition, longitudinal examination of how constraints change during the transition to, and over the course of students’ time at, university, as well as how constraints vary between institutions with different environments and policies would also be valuable.

Conclusion

In summary, the overarching aim of this study was to gain insight that support college student PA promotion following the transition. Consistent with the literature (Bray & Born, 2004; Deforche et al., 2015; Han et al., 2008), PA had declined significantly following the transition. A perceived lack of time emerged as the greatest PA constraint, but time management, rather than a lack of time, is likely the real constraint in most cases (Wilson, Walters et al., 2019). Institutions should consider ways in which they can alleviate the perception, and/or facilitate the negotiation, of constraints, in particular intrapersonal and time constraints. Examples include, extended facility operation hours, wide and continuous advertisement of all opportunities to participate in PA, education that PA can help students to treat and prevent mental health issues, facilitate the formation of intramural sports teams, and improved night time on-campus security. Perception is often reality, so until students’ perceptions are changed, the reality is that other activities will be prioritized at the expense of PA.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Funding received from NIRSA (the organization associated with RSJ) for a research project.

ORCID iD

Oliver W. A. Wilson

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