As the final chapter in a monograph by the same title, this article presents an overview of the evidence discussed in the book. It demonstrates that poor nutrition and health pose a significant educational problem and suggests means to address this problem. Nutrition and health conditions are reviewed in terms of the developmental period in which a child is exposed and the effect on school learning. A summary table of salient findings lists a number of nutrition and health conditions that are educational-risk-factors contributing to educational inefficiency.
References
1.
PollittE.Malnutrition and infection in the classroom.Paris: Unesco, 1990.
2.
BellDE., ReichM.R. eds. Health, nutrition and economic crises: approaches to policy in the third world.Dover, Mass, USA: Auburn House, 1988.
3.
CorniaG.A., JollyR., StewartF. eds. Adjustment with a human face: protecting the vulnerable and promoting growth.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987.
4.
HerrinA.N., RosenfieldP.L. eds. Economics, health and tropical diseases.Manila: University of the Philippines School of Economics, 1988.
5.
AndreanoR., HelminiakT.Economics, health and tropical diseases: a review. In: HerrinA.N., RosenfieldP.L., eds. Economics, health and tropical diseases.Manila: University of the Philippines School of Economics, 1988: 12–39.
6.
WalshJ.A.Establishing health priorities in the developing world.New York: United Nations Development Programme, 1988.
7.
Task Force on Infectious Diseases in School Age Children.Infectious diseases in school-age children.Sacramento, Calif, USA: California State Department of Education, 1988.
8.
BrostoffL.M., CantekinEl, FlahertyM.R., DoyleW.J., BluestoneC.D., FriaT.J.Otitis media with effusion in preschool children. Laryngoscope1985; 95: 428–36
9.
BilesR.W., BufflerP.A., O'DonnellA.A.Epidemiology of otitis media: a community study. Am J Public Health1980; 70: 593–98.
10.
VintherB., ElbrondO., PedersenC.B.A population study of otitis media in childhood. Acta Otolaryngology (Suppl)1979; 360: 135–37.
11.
CarrollJ.A model of school learning. Teachers’ College Record1963; 64: 723–44.
12.
CarrollJ.The model of school learning: progress of an idea. In: FisherC., BerlinerD., eds. Perspectives on instructional time.New York: Longman, 1984: 29–58.
13.
StanburyJ.B.The iodine deficiency disorders: introduction and general aspects. In: HetzelB.S., DunnJ.T., StanburyJ.B., eds. The prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders.New York: Elsevier, 1987: 35–47.
14.
SommerA.Nutritional blindness, xerophthalmia and keratomalacia.New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.
15.
StochM.B., SmytheP.M.Fifteen year development study on effects of severe undernutrition subsequent physical growth and intellectual functioning. Arch Dis Child1976; 51: 327–31.
16.
CallerJ.R., RamseyF., SolimanoG., LowellW.E.The influence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral development: 11. Classroom behavior. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry1983; 22(1): 16–22.
17.
CallerJ.R., RamseyF., FordeV.A follow-up study of the influence of early malnutrition on subsequent development: IV. Intellectual performance during adolescence. Nutr Behavior1986; 3: 211–22.
18.
RichardsonS.A.The relation of severe malnutrition in infancy to the intelligence of school children with differing life histories. Pediatr Res1976; 10: 57–61.
19.
WinickM., MeyerK.K., HarrisR.C.Malnutrition and environmental enrichment by early adoption. Science1975; 190: 1173–75.
20.
PollittE.A critical view of three decades of research on the effects of chronic energy malnutrition on behavioral development. In: SchürenS., ScrimshawN.S., eds. Chronic energy deficiency: consequences and related issues.Lausanne, Switzerland: IDECG, Nestle Foundation, 1988: 77–93.
21.
PharoahP.O.D., ConnollyK.J., EkinsR.P., HardingA.G.Maternal thyroid hormone levels in pregnancy and the subsequent cognitive and motor performance of the children. Clin Endocrinology1984; 21: 265–70.
22.
BleichrodtN., GarciaI., RubioC., Morreale de EscobarG., Escobar del ReyF.Developmental disorders associated with severe iodine deficiency. In: HetzelB.S., DunnJ.T., StanburyJ.B., eds. The prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders.New York: Elsevier, 1987: 65–84.
23.
HetzelB.S.An overview of prevention and control of iodine deficiency. In: HetzelB.S., DunnJ.T., StanburyJ.B. eds. The prevention and control of iodine deficiency disorders.New York: Elsevier, 1987: 731.
24.
JamisonD.Child malnutrition and school performance in China. J Develop Econ1986; 20: 299–309.
25.
JohnstonF.E., LowS.M., De BaessaY., MacVeanR.B.Interaction of nutritional and socioeconomic status as determinants of cognitive development in disadvantaged urban Guatemalan children. Am J Physical Anthropol1987; 73: 501–06.
26.
MoockP.R., LeslieJ.Childhood malnutrition and schooling deficit in the Terai region of Nepal. J Develop Econ1986; 20: 33–52.
27.
KotchabhadkiN., HathiratP., ValyaseviA., PollittE.Biological and social factors related to school performance in Thai children.Bangkok, Thailand: Mahidol University, 1989.
28.
JoosS., PollittE.Comparison of four supplementation studies. In: BrozekJ., SchürenB., eds. Malnutrition and behavior: critical assessment of key issues.Lausanne, Switzerland: Nestle Foundation, 1984: 507–19.
McKayA., McKayH.Primary school progress after preschool experience: troublesome issues in the conduct of follow-up research and findings from the Cali, Colombia study. In: Preventing school failure: the relationship between pre-school and primary education. Proceedings of a workshop on pre-school research held in Bogota, Colombia. IDRC Publication no. 172e.Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre, 1983.
31.
SuperC., HerreraG., MoraJ.O.Effects of food supplementation and maternal tutoring on physical growth. Child Development (in press).
32.
FarranD.C., McKinneyJ.D. eds. Risk in intellectual and psychosocial development.New York: Academic Press, 1986.
33.
StephensonL.S.Impact of helminth infections on human nutrition.London: Taylor & Francis, 1987.
34.
BoeckxR.L.Lead poisoning in children. Analyt Chem1986; 58: 274–84A.
35.
United States Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry.The nature and extent of lead poisoning in children in the United States: a report to Congress.Atlanta, Ga, USA: Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1988.
36.
SchwartzJ.Low level health effects of lead: growth, developmental and neurological disturbance. In: Proceedings of the National Conference, Childhood lead poisoning: current perspectives.Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1987.
37.
McMichaelA.J., BaghurstP.A., WiggN.R., VimpaniG., RobertsonE.F., RobertsR.J.Port Pirie cohort study: environmental exposure to lead and children's abilities at the age of four years. N Engl J Med1988. 319(8): 468–75.
38.
SchroederS.R., HawkB., OttoD.A., MushakP., HicksR.E.Separating the effects of lead and social factors in IQ. Environ Res1985; 38: 144–54.
39.
ErnhartC.B., LandaB., SchellN.B.Subclinical levels of lead and developmental deficit: a multivariate follow-up reassessment. Pediatr1981; 67(6): 911–19.
40.
ErnhartC.B., LandaB., WolfA.W.Subclinical lead level and developmental deficit: re-analysis of data. J Learning Disabilities1985; 18(8): 475–79.
41.
LansdownR., YuleW., UrbanowiczM., HunterJ.The relationship between blood-lead concentrations, intelligence, attainment and behavior in a school population: the second London study. Int Arch Occupational Environ Health1986; 57: 225–35.
42.
HarveyP.C., HamlinM.W., KumarR., DelvesH.T.Blood lead, behavior, and intelligence test performance in preschool children. Sci Total Environ1984; 4: 45–60.
43.
IrwinM., EngleP.L., YarbroughC., KleinR.E., TownsendJ.The relationship of prior ability and family characteristics to school attendance and school achievement in rural Guatemala. Child Develop1978; 49: 415–27.
44.
National Center for Health Statistics.NCHB growth charts. Monthly Vital Services Report1976: 25(3) Supp (HRA) 76–1120.
45.
BalderstonJ.B.Determinants of children's school participation. In: BalderstonJ.B., WilsonA.B., FreireME., SimonenM.S., eds. Malnourished children of the rural poor.Boston, Mass, USA: Auburn House, 1981: 83–105.
46.
SigmanM., NeumannC., JansenAAJ., BwiboN.Cognitive abilities of Kenyan children in relation to nutrition, family characteristics and education. Child Develop (in press).
47.
CallerJ.R., RamseyF., SolimanoG., LowellWE., MasonE.The influence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral development: 1. Degree of impairment of intellectual performance. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry1983; 22: 8–15.
48.
AgarwalD.K., UpadhyaySK., TripathiA.M., AgarwalK.N.Nutritional status, physical work capacity and mental function in school children.New Delhi: Nutrition Foundation of India, 1987.
49.
FlorencioC.A.Impact of nutrition on the academic achievement and other school-related behaviors of grade one to six pupils.Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines, 1987.
50.
SoewondoS., HusainiM., PollittE.Effects of iron deficiency on attention and learning processes in preschool children: Bandung. Indonesia. Am J Clin Nutr (Suppl) 1989: 30: 667–73.
51.
Guidelines for the eradication of iron deficiency anemia.Washington, DC: International Nutritional Consultative Group, 1977.
52.
BroadbentD.E.Decision and stress.New York: Academic Press, 1971.
53.
PollittE., HathiratP., KotchabhakdiN.J., MissellL., ValyaseviA.Iron deficiency and educational achievement in Thailand. Am J Clin Nutr (Suppl)1989; 50: 68796.
54.
SeshadriS., GopaldasT.Impact of iron supplementation on cognitive functions in preschool and school-aged children: the Indian experience. Am J Clin Nutr (Suppl)1989; 50: 675–84.
55.
GopaldasT., KaleM., BardwajP.Prophylactic iron supplementation for underprivileged school boys. Indian J Pediatr1985; 22: 737–43.
56.
SoemantriA.G., PollittE., Kim 1. Iron deficiency anemia and educational achievement. Am J Clin Nutr1985; 42: 1221–28.
57.
LayrisseM., RocheM.The relationship between anemia and hookworm infection. Am J Hygiene1964: 79: 279–301.
58.
JordanP., WebbeG.Schistosomiasis: epidemiology, treatment and control.London: Heineman Medical Books, 1982.
59.
FultonM., RaabG., ThomsonG., LaxenD., HunterR., HepburnW.Influence of blood lead on the ability and attainment of children in Edinburgh. Lancet1987: 1: 1221–26.
60.
NeedlemanH.L., GunnoeC., LevitonA., ReedR., PeresieH., MaherC., BarrettP.Deficits in psychologic and class-room performance of children with elevate d dentine lead levels. N Engl J Med1979; 300(13) 689–95.
61.
PollittE., LeibelR.L., GreenfieldD.Brief fasting, stress and cognitive function. Am J Clin Nutr1978; 34: 1526–33.
SimeonD.R., Grantham-McGregorS.Effects of missing breakfast on the cognitive functions of school children of differing nutritional status. Am J Clin Nutr1989; 49: 64653.
64.
MeyersA.F., SampsonA.K., WeitzmanM., RogersB.L., KayneH.School breakfast program and school performance. Am J Dis Child1989; 143: 1234–39
65.
WeitzmanM.Excessive school absences. Advances Develop Behav Pediatr1987; 8: 151–78.
66.
LevinH., PollittE., GallowayR., McGuireJ.Micro-nutrient deficiencies. In: JamisonD.T., MosleyW.H., eds. Evolving health sector priorities in developing countries.Washington DC: World Bank (in press).
67.
PowellC., Grantham-McGregorS., ElstonM.An evaluation of giving the Jamaican government school meal to a class of children. Humn Nutr Clin Nutr1983; 37c: 381–88.
68.
YuleW., LansdownR., MillarI.B., UrbanowiczM.The relationship between blood lead concentrations, intelligence, and attainment in a school population: a pilot study. Develop Med Child Neurology1981; 23: 567–76.