Abstract
In today’s competitive and rapidly evolving educational environment, the ability to implement appropriate and effective change is of critical importance to an international school’s ongoing success. This study examines leadership characteristics and styles that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda within the context of an international school environment. Results from a mixed methods research design found that the leadership characteristics most frequently linked to effective change included: (i) being visionary; (ii) being committed to school/staff; and (iii) creating a collegial/supportive work environment. The paper analyzes these and other results through the lenses of: (i) setting directions; (ii) developing people; and (iii) developing the organization. Findings specific to the international school situation are also presented. Finally, suggestions for developing a framework for an international school ‘change management’ paradigm are presented.
Introduction
In the international school market, an ability to implement appropriate and effective change is of critical importance to a school’s ongoing success in today’s competitive and rapidly evolving educational environment. In general, research done on schools has shown that a key component in the success of school improvement initiatives is the effectiveness of its leadership (Glover and Tomlinson, 2012; Hargreaves, 2010; Stoll and Fink, 1996). Without effective leadership, a school’s forward momentum stalls and defaults to the status quo.
The issue, then, becomes one of defining what role a leader plays in promoting effective change. However, ‘despite the proliferation of numerous theories, models, and multistep approaches, leaders continue to lack a clear understanding of change, its antecedents, effective processes, or the ability to successfully engage organizational members in change initiatives’ (Gilley et al., 2009: 38).
If the concept of leadership is examined more holistically, it is apparent that there are actually two potentially competing components within a leader’s role that can have a direct impact on the style of leadership an individual employs. First, from the macro-perspective, there is the ‘structural dimension’, which focuses on the management apparatus including, for example, decision-making protocols and policies/procedures. Then, at the micro-level, we have a more ‘human dimension’, which considers the form of the interactions between a leader and his or her staff. In many ways, this highlights a manager versus leader dichotomy. This potential struggle between management and leadership reflects the fact that ‘[m]anagement’s mandate is to minimize risk and to keep the current system operating, [while leader-driven] change, by definition, requires creating a new system’ (Kotter, 1995: 60). More recently, Kotter has argued that ‘management is about coping with complexity’ while ‘leadership is about coping with change’ (Kotter, 2013: 6). A new system, by definition, implies uncertainty and increased potential risk. If leadership is about change, and change is equated with instability, which management tries to minimize, then there is an inherent conflict between the concepts of leadership and management (Morrison, 2013). As such, educational leaders are presented with a dilemma – if the process of change ‘comes on too strong, the culture will rebel…[conversely] if the leader is overly respectful of the existing culture, he or she will become absorbed into the status quo’ (Fullan, 2011: 62).
Therein lies the paradox. And yet, modern-day educational leadership development continues to train leaders (in contrast to managers) who are then transplanted into very hierarchical structures and expected, in many cases, to manage rather than lead. The structural constraints leaders encounter within their organizations can hinder their ability to transform the system and reinvigorate it for further growth (Morrison, 2013).
I would argue that educational institutions, full of creative minds, both teacher and student, should be centers of exploration for new ideas to challenge the status quo and yet, ‘schools have become fundamentally conservative institutions which have historically resisted change and sought to preserve continuity with their past experiences’ (Stoll and Fink, 1996: 5). I would further argue that school improvement must be an ongoing, evolutionary process, sensitive to new issues and societal changes, in order to not only challenge the status quo and move society forward, but also to stimulate continuous improvements in student outcomes.
A key question is, therefore, ‘How does a leader go beyond the status quo and set the agenda for effective change?’ Specifically, the questions guiding this study include: (i) what are the leadership characteristics that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda within international schools? and (ii) is there a single leadership style that lends itself to most successfully effecting change in an international school setting?
The answers to these questions will then be used to form a framework to illustrate how leaders, specifically leaders within an international school environment, can drive the change process forward in an effective manner, thereby minimizing the impact of an organization’s tendency toward stasis.
Significance of study
In recent years, the study of the role of leadership in bringing about change has been a strong focus within academe. While Fullan (2010: 76) notes that ‘there has been more written about leadership in the literature on organizations than any other topic [in recent years], and there are no signs that it is abating’, the ‘empirical evidence linking any leader’s internal state to their use of effective leadership practice…although growing, is not yet extensive’ (Leithwood et al., 2006a: 8).
Research has suggested ‘a relationship between change process actions and outcomes, hence the need to review associated leader skills that underlie their behaviors and actions’ (Gilley et al., 2009: 40). As a result, the ‘potential value of future research on headteacher traits’ is evident (Leithwood et al., 2006b: 14). The current study was designed to help identify specific leadership characteristics and styles that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda.
An additional significance of this study is the international perspective it provides. For the past decade and a half, it has been recognized that very little research on leadership within the international school setting has been conducted (Blandford and Shaw, 2001; Lee et al., 2012). Hallinger and Leithwood ‘warn that the field of educational administration runs the danger of being parochial and insular and would benefit from a cross-cultural international approach, not only to find best practices, but more importantly, to gain new perspectives’ (in Slater, 2011: 221). Yet, around the globe, international school leaders are working in cultural and socio-political environments foreign to that of their home countries. This cross-cultural dimension would be expected to have an impact on how a leader makes decisions and interacts with staff, students and stakeholders and will also be considered in this study.
This study, therefore, aims to enhance the existing body of academic literature regarding how educational leaders institute effective change by examining individual characteristics and leadership styles within the realm of international schools. The hope is that this will contribute to the ‘knowledge of change and its related skill set [which] will enable leaders at all levels to more effectively design change initiative[s]; enhance their change talents, behaviors, and competence; and ultimately lead more successful change efforts’ (Gilley, et al., 2009: 44).
Methods
To examine the connection between leadership and effective change within the international school environment, a mixed methods approach was utilized. This approach was employed in order to allow movement from an understanding of the breadth of the subject (via quantitatively analyzed surveys) to a greater depth of the subject (via qualitatively analyzed interviews).
To quantitatively assess leaders’ perceptions regarding characteristics that lead to, and support, effective change, an online cross-sectional questionnaire was developed (see Appendix 1). This method permitted a large number of international school leaders to be sampled. It is important to note that the survey was designed to explore perceptions of change rather than measureable outcomes. While data on actual outcomes would be an interesting supplement to this research, it would require, inter alia, information from a leader’s staff as well as other important stakeholders in order to corroborate the leaders’ perceptions of themselves and associated outcomes and this is beyond the scope of the current study.
The questionnaire focused on: (i) demographic data; (ii) perceptions of leadership characteristics that support effective change; (iii) factors that are perceived to impact, both positively and negatively, the change process; and finally (iv) perceived methods of overcoming structural (or systemic) constraints that can function as gatekeepers to the change process. The draft questionnaire was pilot tested with colleagues from within the field of international educational leadership to ensure that the intent of each of the questions was clear and that respondents could choose appropriate responses. A number of minor changes to wording and question order were made as a result.
Participants were selected using probability sampling based on a systematic sampling approach. To do this, a single list of accredited international schools was compiled from two accrediting organizations: (i) the Council of International Schools; and (ii) the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. The final list contained 544 international schools sorted alphabetically by country and then by school name. Based on a 95% confidence level, a sample size of 365 schools was selected for participation. Using a sampling protocol suggested by Cohen and coworkers (2011), it was calculated that each 1.5 schools should be selected. This was rounded to every second school. The leader of each selected school was contacted by email. The study was outlined, their anonymity confirmed and a link to an electronic survey tool was included should they consent to participate. A link to opt out of the survey and any future correspondence was also included in the email. Data from this survey were analyzed using descriptive statistics and were reported in terms of relative ranking and proportions. The responses to the open-ended questions were summarized and analyzed thematically.
Based on the results of the quantitative portion of this study, a semi-structured interview was designed to ‘explore in-depth experiences of research participants, and the meanings they attribute to these experiences’ (Adams, 2010: 18). The topics addressed in the interviews paralleled those of the online surveys. However, the questions were more open ended and additional details were requested. The interviews were conducted either face to face or via video-conferencing. The interview tool provided a general framework for the interview but allowed the conversation to flow in a more fluid manner toward an understanding of the change process according to the interviewee’s worldview, in order to add depth based on experiential insights. Another advantage of using semi-structured interviews with experts in the field in conjunction with a larger number of questionnaires conducted with a broader sample is that it allowed for ‘cross-checking against other data collected from different sources’ (Scott and Usher, 2011: 120).
As this second component of the study was to explicate change through personal understanding, it required interviewing individuals with extensive and effective (i.e. successful) experiences with change. In contrast to the sampling procedure used for the online surveys, the selection process used for the interviews was not random. Instead, five industry-acknowledged expert leaders with track records of excellence and accomplishment within the international school community were identified. The operational definition of ‘expert leader’ was that of someone meeting at least one of the following criteria: (i) international recognition from an accredited organization for outstanding leadership; (ii) widely read and quoted peer-reviewed academic publications; (iii) regular keynote speaker/invited presenter at international conferences; and/or (iv) the current head of a well-established and highly respected international school.
Since the 1990s, there have been numerous research studies dedicated to examining the connection between leadership and organizational success. Leithwood and Riehl’s (2003) extensive work in this area classified leadership characteristics into three categories: (i) setting directions; (ii) developing people; and (iii) developing the organization. The data collection tools used in this study utilized these categories in conjunction with a list of characteristics adapted from the Leader Attributes Inventory (see Moss et al., 1994). These categories and attributes will also be used as a framework for the results and discussion section of this paper.
Results and discussion
Response rate and demographic data
An invitation to participate in the online survey was sent to a random sample of 365 international school leaders working around the world. A total of 76 individuals completed the online survey translating to a 21% response rate. While the response rate was lower than anticipated, each of these 76 surveys was fully filled out, with many respondents adding insightful comments that provided important additional details.
In terms of demographic data, 72% of the respondents were male with 71% being over the age of 45. Almost 39% had received their teacher training in the United States with the United Kingdom in second place at 28%. The vast majority of respondents (81.9%) had been in the teaching field for more than 15 years while 56.2% had been school leaders for more than 11 years. The latter fell to 48% when asked about leadership experience within the international school environment. When asked about current position within the school, 62.3% responded that they were in the position of head of school while 36.2 percent were currently principals (the remaining 1.5% were in the role of vice-principal or the equivalent). It is unclear whether these sample demographics reflect those of the population of international school leaders as a whole since this information is not currently available. However, based on experience and discussions with other international school leaders, these proportions seem to be within the realm of what might be considered typical.
The five individuals selected for participation in the interview component of the study all agreed to participate. They were all men over the age of 45 and currently working as heads of school in four different Asian countries. The interviews ranged in length from 30 to 59 minutes and were conducted either in person or via video-conferencing. Recordings of the interviews were then transcribed using a transcription service.
Setting directions
Part of being a great leader is the ability to set directions that are meaningful and doable. To do this, a leader must first have a clear vision. As Harvard Business School professor JP Kotter (2005: 6) stated: ‘the best leaders balance short-term results with long-term vision’. Having, and sharing, a vision means that the individual (or group) has a clear understanding of where they want to be and can develop an operational plan for how to get there. As such, the ability to create and share a meaningful and practical ‘[v]ision is increasingly regarded as an important component of leadership’ (Bush and Glover, 2003: 5).
In terms of setting school direction, online survey results indicate that being a visionary is perceived to be the most important characteristic of an effective international school leader (n = 54). This was followed by being committed (n = 31) and then by being diplomatic (n = 24). During the face-to-face interviews, the necessity of setting a direction was mentioned by all five respondents. However, they did not agree on the level of importance of having an actual ‘vision’.
In general, the interviewees agreed that an international school’s vision should not be unilaterally determined (i.e. top down), but rather that it should be developed into a shared vision with input from various stakeholders. At the same time, it was acknowledged that the leader needs to be the one driving the process. For example, Respondent C contended that: good leadership is visionary in the sense that it is always pushing people to be better, pushing people for change’s sake, for growth’s sake; the idea being that their organizations are organic and, by virtue of being organic, they need to grow and thrive. My job is to nurture that, to cajole that, to stimulate that growth in whatever way I can.
However, vision was not seen as a vital prerequisite to success among all of the expert leaders interviewed. For example, Respondent A shared some information: ‘I personally really struggle to describe where it is we’re going and what we’re going to be doing. I think part of it is you’re never really quite sure what it’s going to be like when you get there.’ Furthermore, while Respondent A believes that ‘when you talk about leadership you’re essentially talking about someone who is able to move people in a certain direction’ this leader also believes that the idea of vision is fundamentally flawed, stating that ‘I don’t believe organizations can have a vision. What I prefer is the word narrative.’ When clarifying this statement, Respondent A noted that: if we come in with a vision, and the way humans are, we’re predators, so we just look forward, right? We can’t look back, we can’t look sideways, we can’t look down, we can just look forward – we’re missing so much of the picture, right? There’s so much that has gone before us that we’re building upon, so we can’t just look ahead, we’ve got to acknowledge that we’re grounded in the present, and the present is a result of the past.
In addition to having a vision, another strategy noted by interview respondents for setting directions was ‘disturbing the status quo’. The leaders noted that, at times, it is imperative to shake up the current situation. They noted that, at their own schools, this has been done vis-à-vis dissemination of academic articles, watching TedTalks and sharing various resources with staff as a means of getting them to reflect on current practice and to consider possible future changes to school direction. Respondent C says that the goal is to ‘shake people out of their comfort zone of thinking and getting them to think about some things in a provocative way’. This is akin to a prelude to Kotter’s (1995: 60) suggestion ‘to make the status quo seem more dangerous than launching into the unknown’ and shows an admirable openness, a willingness to take risks and a belief in staff members’ abilities to have good ideas.
Developing people
Perhaps even more important to ultimate organizational success than setting direction is leaders’ ability to develop people – in other words, their skills with the ‘human dimension’ (see Morrison, 2013). Unfortunately, while a definitive list of leadership characteristics that are consistently correlated with positive change within organizations does not exist, research-based lists of personal characteristics that, over time, space and context, support the development of an effective leader do exist. Interestingly, many of these characteristics relate to a (potential) leader’s interpersonal skills. For example, a number of studies have found that honesty, integrity, trust and approachability are fundamental to the making of an effective leader (Gill, 2003; Harris and Lambert, 2003; Stoll and Fink, 1996).
In the online survey component of the current study, the top three characteristics effective leaders were perceived as having in terms of developing people were: (i) ethics/integrity (n = 22); (ii) good communication (n = 20); and (iii) approachability (n = 12). Not surprisingly, when the total number of mentions in any of the top three choices was considered, being a ‘good communicator’ was found to be the most important characteristic of an effective leader in terms of developing people (n = 51).
Additional characteristics highlighted vis-à-vis the interview component of the study included: adaptability, an ability to cope with ambiguity, creativity, empathy, flexibility, good judgment, optimism, perseverance, resilience and, finally, a sense of humor to keep everything in perspective. These characteristics were deemed important not only if someone wanted to be successful in developing people, but also for a leader to be able to gain a sense of personal satisfaction from the job. The fact that perseverance and resilience were highlighted frequently by the interviewees is a reflection of the fact that international school leaders are working in a field that is, in many ways, resistant to change. Interestingly, one respondent noted that the characteristics of an effective leader are, in many ways, the same as an effective teacher, stating that: trust and autonomy, creativity and humor, a responsive climate, a sense of being valued, a climate of self-improvement, clarity of purpose and goals, consistency, emphasis on personal success and encouragement and genuine praise (Respondent D)
In recognition of the fact that leaders work with a wide variety of people in various capacities, Respondent B noted that, ‘you have to have the personal attributes of ability to engage with a range of personalities and stakeholders, an ability to demonstrate empathy, to be able to position oneself in a person-centered way’. Similarly, Respondent A noted: I think it’s all about people, that leadership, there’s just no way of separating leadership from people and personal relationships, and interactions with people, and so that tends to be a lot of my focus, and then everything else sort of flows from there, and the conversations that are generated from those interactions.
However, such an environment does not manifest itself on its own. Rather, it must be actively nurtured with leaders establishing a working environment based on trust and a sense of support if movement forward is to be successful. As Respondent D said, ‘you can move change forward because people understand it and they trust you’ but ‘unless you’ve got trust, it’s not going to happen’. Respondent E agreed, stating that, ‘trust is huge…and it’s one [characteristic] that I will tell the new guy that’s coming in…he’s got to work hard on gaining the trust of a handful of the founding members, and a handful of the board’. More emphatically, Respondent A said, ‘as a school leader, if people can’t trust your character, my goodness, you’re done!’
As mentioned earlier, integrity/ethics was identified in the current survey as the most important leadership characteristic for the development of people. Integrity is fundamental for the development of the trust needed to effectively develop people who, in turn, are fundamental to the ultimate success of an organization. As Respondent B stressed, ‘you have to show you have integrity, and if you lose that integrity, you’ve lost your power base’.
In addition to integrity/ethics, the ability to communicate and being approachable made up the top three characteristics of effective leaders in terms of developing people. These three characteristics are fundamental to building and maintaining staff relationships as well as to creating a sense of trust with an ethical standing dedicated to fairness and equity. These characteristics are also vital to a leader’s perceived competency, which is, in turn, connected to their: (i) vision, as a leader who knows how to get where they are going; and (ii) to the staff’s sense of trust, in the sense that they have faith that their leader knows what he/she is doing and is committed not only to the organization’s success but also to the wellbeing of each of them.
A leadership characteristic deemed important to the development of people by the interviewees, yet often portrayed in the literature as a negative trait, was charisma (see Bush and Glover, 2003; Fullan, 2001, 2002; Hargreaves et al., 2003). This character trait was mentioned in terms of developing the relationships between the various stakeholders. As Respondent B noted: charisma comes in many different models and types. Charisma isn’t being able to stand up in front of a load of people and tell jokes and make them laugh, but charisma is a leadership attribute that all successful school leaders have to have, because people have to look at this person in that position, and want to buy into what they’re offering.
Developing the organization
Through setting direction and developing people, one can argue that the ultimate goal of the leader of an international school is to develop the organization by fostering its growth and positive evolution in order to see positive results in terms of enhanced student success. In fact, ‘the overwhelming body of opinion over the last 30 or so years is that the prime task of leaders is to bring about change in order to maintain and enhance organizational success’ (Burnes and By, 2012: 239).
In addition to the attributes listed in the previous two sections, other studies identified ‘intelligence, scholarship, dependability in exercising responsibility, activity and social participation, and higher socioeconomic status’ (Sternberg, 2005: 192) in addition to ‘supervisory ability, intelligence, the need for achievement, decisiveness, self-assurance, and initiative’ (Gilley et al., 2009: 40–41) as being significant characteristics of effective leaders. Interestingly, at the same time, in a ‘paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will’, Fullan wrote that great leaders can be ‘self-effacing, quiet, reserved, even shy…’ based on Jim Collins’ (2001) research of Fortune 500 companies (see Collins, 2001; Fullan, 2003: 8).
When considering the development of the organization, the top three characteristics required for success as identified by the online survey of international school leaders were being: (i) a team builder (n = 54); followed (with a significant margin) by (ii) a motivator (n = 28); and finally, achievement oriented (n = 26).
When asked about the top three tasks of effective school leaders, these (according to total number of top three mentions by survey respondents) were: (i) development of an appropriate vision (n = 36); (ii) ability to motivate others (n = 32); and iii) student success (n = 31). The most commonly mentioned single top choice was student success (n = 23), which is encouraging, since much of the driving force behind change should be focused on the need for improvements in student outcomes in addition to overall school improvement (Harris and Lambert, 2003).
Given that much of the research argues that leadership style has a direct impact on school and student success, it is important to recognize that the resounding majority of leaders (94%) completing the online survey felt the same way. One survey respondent noted that, ‘leadership style affects everything from the motivational levels of the staff to decisions by prospective families about enrolling their child, to the overall sense of community among all the stakeholders’. Furthermore, ‘leadership style sets the tone for the school and that tone can promote or impede pace and direction of school improvement’.
When it comes to selecting the leadership style most likely to lead to school success, 48.5% (n = 33) of survey respondents selected democratic; however, 41.2% (n = 28) selected ‘other’. This is significant as it suggests that it is sometimes challenging to compartmentalize leadership style into a single classification. Rather than being content to select a single defined leadership style, numerous survey respondents chose to expand upon their selection in the comments section by defining their approach as situational/relational or a combination of democratic/authoritarian depending on context. This blurring or merging of leadership styles has also been identified in other research (see Blandford and Shaw, 2001).
It is undeniable that the job of an international school leader is multidimensional and requires a context-based approach to decision-making. As one survey respondent summarized it: ‘No good leader has only one style. There are times when I am authoritarian, times when I am laissez-faire and times when I am democratic.’ More emphatically, one respondent noted that while the democratic style is popular in the literature and mass media, it does not always support the implementation of change. In fact, this respondent argued that: though many teachers, parents and staff believe the school should be run democratically, the leader must use an authoritative style to move forward. Decisions often times require input from the stakeholders, but the leader of an international school needs to stay focused on the mission and what’s best for the institution. With a diverse population, a democratic style invites factions to grow, politicking to overwhelm agendas and animosity to poison the school climate.
For example, Respondent B stated: ‘I’m a pragmatic leader’ while another stated: ‘my leadership style is very much hands off. I’m a great believer in appointing people into a particular job and providing them with the resources to be able to do the job’ (Respondent D). Respondent C indicated that ‘leadership is adaptable to various situations, so I don’t think there’s one way to lead, like it depends on the context in which you’re leading’. Furthermore,
‘I would love to tell you that my leadership style is an inclusive model…my preference is to be inclusive of consensus making when I can; [however], there are times when I’m very draconian’ (Respondent C).
Similarly, another interviewee discussed their diverse working environment and, as such, felt that ‘leaders serve as situational leaders in a school where there’s so many different levels of support or need, and it’s based differently for almost everybody’ (Respondent E). However, while not identifying a specific leadership style, the most important connection between leadership style and its impact on the organization made by an interviewee was in the statement: ‘my leadership style is one that I want to make sure that this environment is absolutely conducive to excellent teaching and top-quality learning’
Another key point raised by most interview respondents was that in order to build the right team for success, it is first necessary to get the structures in place and find the best people. Many of the respondents then used either a sports analogy or Collins’ much-cited bus analogy (2001). As Fullan (2003: 9) points out, it is not ‘people [who] are your most important asset…[but rather] the right people’ (emphasis in original). From the leadership perspective, there was also acknowledgment that leaders must be comfortable with their personal strengths and limitations and ensure they hire talented staff to complement them in supporting the vision of the school.
An issue that was raised by interview respondents in terms of ongoing organizational development was the need for staff to know that there is progress being made and that the leadership is at the helm and on course. For example, Respondent A noted that, ‘one of the things that motivates people the most is a sense of progress…people have to have a sense the organization’s moving forward or their work is progressing’. As a result, leaders need to make ‘sure we reinforce a sense of progress as an organization; that we’re going in directions that we’re excited about collectively, that we believe in, that is inspiring’ (Respondent A). Thus, ‘the idea of progress, I think, is one of the most important things that we have to put into the culture, that we’re constantly moving forward’ (Respondent A).
One strategy that leaders can use to show progress and enhance motivation is to focus on early successes, termed ‘low-hanging fruit’ by Respondent B, meaning ‘stuff you can just easily pick, and show improvement. So, think smart, think politically, in the bigger picture it might not be the best thing to do, but it gets some quick, easy, visible wins.’ Similarly, Respondent D stated that, ‘creating short-term wins and showing people that, actually, they’re achieving what you’ve set out to do and that they can see the success’ is a critically important role of the leader.
In order to secure the support of staff, and ‘get everyone on the bus’, it is important that ‘people feel a part of a project or part of a solution’ (Respondent E). Creating a safe and inclusive environment for all (to take risks) is paramount. Staff must all have some opportunity to have input into the strategic planning of the organization. Significantly, Respondent A stated that: if you get the process right, people don’t care about the outcome. If the process seems fair, and there was input, and it was a process that led people to believe that you’re making intelligent decisions – then, guess what – people are going to be supportive of the outcome, almost whatever it is.
The desire to make important changes that lead to improvements in outcomes is a powerful driving force for individuals entering into leadership positions. In fact, it is ‘perhaps one of the greatest motivating factors in people’s passion for taking the lead of an organization’ (Morrison, 2013: 418). However, ironically, several interview respondents referred to their limited roles in terms of leadership direction – a finding that was also corroborated by the survey results. In fact, Respondent A stated that: one of the reasons for moving into leadership is you feel like you can have a positive impact on things, but at a very granular level. I think most people would be very surprised to realize how little impact a head can have, you know, what actually happens in a classroom, the head has very, very little influence, because your leadership is diffused as it moves further down.
Finally, it is important to realize that an individual leader’s role in developing the organization may have a very limited time frame and, in fact, as Respondent A said: the piece most often missing in a look at educational change is whether it outlasted those who made the change. Within a few years of a supposed institutional change, the number of initiatives that exist only on the résumé of the one who implemented the change is rather depressing. Schools change the same way cargo ships turn, very slowly. Any change is a cultural change and must be tended to long after it appears finished.
The international school perspective
Both the survey and interview responses recognized the unique situations that international school leaders face in comparison to their national counterparts. As expatriate employees, issues identified revolve around the socio-political nature of working in foreign countries under foreign laws. In addition, tensions due to cultural differences that can arise between school leaders and board members/owners were mentioned.
International school leaders, based in countries with different cultures, languages, and/or methods of doing business than those of their home countries, are highly reliant on local staff and must be able to adapt quickly yet be resilient when faced with various challenges they may have no previous context for. Connected to the socio-political and cultural nuances of working in a ‘different land’ are the challenges internal to any organization. Whether the international school is managed by a board (not for profit) or privately owned (for profit), a leader is always traversing unseen challenges driven by politics, culture and individual egos. These issues result in a very challenging environment for many school leaders (Blandford and Shaw, 2001).
One interview respondent made an analogy between international school leaders and professional sports managers in terms of short-lived careers (Respondent B). In fact, the short-lived tenure of many international school leaders has been documented in the literature for at least the past one and a half decades (Blandford and Shaw, 2001; Hayden, 2006; Hayden and Thompson, 2008; Lee et al., 2012). The interviewee noted that there is no practical way to escape the political crises and bureaucratic challenges that arise from working in an educational institution in a foreign country. By way of comparison, as Respondent B said, state systems, such as those found in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States: operate within frameworks, and have safety nets, unions, good governance, professional institutions, government specifications…there are defined parameters. In these international schools that we all work in, and some of us thrive in (some of us don’t), those rules don’t apply.
Implications for practice: Summary and recommendations
The purpose of this study was to explore the breadth and depth of international school leaders’ perceptions regarding the leadership characteristics and style that are most conducive to promoting effective change in order to move their schools beyond the status quo. The quantitative data obtained through online surveys were supported, and ultimately enhanced, by the qualitative data derived through face-to-face interviews.
In terms of those leadership characteristics perceived by international school leaders to support a change agenda, the top three traits identified were: the importance of being able to create a vision; a commitment to school and staff; and an ability to create an environment that is collegial and supportive. Other key characteristics that were identified include being approachable, a good communicator and, above all, having a strong ethical disposition. Finally, adaptability, an ability to cope with ambiguity, creativity, empathy, flexibility, good judgment, humility, optimism, perseverance, resilience and, finally, a sense of humor to keep everything in perspective, were mentioned as being important characteristics of effective leaders.
Being able to effectively develop the human resource aspect of an organization was identified as a very strong component for successful change management. This entails hiring the right people, getting them in the right position, building those important relationships, and building and maintaining clear lines of communication as a means of increasing the efficacy of change. Connected to this is the need to develop and maintain trust between all stakeholders. As noted, it is the development of a positive and supportive relationship that enables leaders to overcome many of the obstacles found within an organization. While an ethical reputation is vital, so is constantly being a role model for professional behaviors that indicate support of change.
In terms of leadership style, there was a significant recognition of its importance in connection with both school improvement and student success. The leadership styles perceived by international school leaders in the current study to be most conducive to effective leadership were weighted equally between ‘democratic’ and ‘mixed, based on situation/context’. Terms like situational leader or context-based leadership style were referred to as a reflection of the complex realities of running a large and transparent organization such as an international school.
In terms of the change process itself, a leader must also be able to identify priorities, strategize and lead the organization through its evolution. Change is not a linear process. Rather, managing change is messy and, at times, it may seem like one is simply muddling through (cf. Lindblom, 1959). However, a leader must demonstrate by example that he/she is comfortable and positive in this type of environment since it will normalize (and promote an overall culture of acceptance of) the realities of a fluid and dynamic organization undergoing change.
International school leaders identified many strategies they have used while implementing change including: (i) ensuring opportunities for feedback from staff; (ii) building relationships and trust; (iii) learning the school culture; and, at times, iv) creating a sense of urgency. However, a key strategy, which was mentioned repeatedly, was learning the school culture. This is significant, because if the leader understands the school culture, then he/she can carefully cultivate it so that it grows in the desired direction. Ensuring that the school culture supports a forward movement in terms of planning for continuous school improvement reflects the philosophy of kaizen (i.e. continuous improvement) and is critical to effective change.
In summary, based on the findings of this study, the key components of a framework for an international school’s leadership ‘change management’ paradigm would consist of the following elements: setting school priorities based on a clearly articulated, shared vision and commitment to a healthy school culture and continuous quality improvement aimed at ongoing improvements in student success; building a team that is founded on trust and continuous promotion of collegial relationships; establishing an approachable administration that works from a strong ethical foundation and which supports appropriate risk-taking; utilizing a contextual decision-making process that is fair and equitable to all; developing a school culture that supports a kaizen (continuous improvement) philosophy and which takes concrete action for bringing change initiatives to fruition, then shares successes widely and early; and finally, hiring leaders who believe in, and have skills related to the ‘human dimension’ – a knowledge of how to interact with colleagues and other staff in order to build the foundations for continued organizational success.
Ultimately, by beginning with a framework that includes these key variables, and by encouraging leaders to develop appropriate characteristics and leadership styles, schools can construct their own change management paradigm which will support their leaders in going beyond the status quo and leading their schools to ever greater improvements and to continuously enhanced levels of student success.
Conclusion
When it comes to the examination of continuous improvement within an organization, ‘in the end all roads lead to leadership’ (MacBeath, 2006: 162). This is where planning the success and growth of an international school must begin and end because, given the fact that the research supports the fundamental role of leaders within a school system, it is imperative to understand the personal characteristics and skills, under varying contexts, which support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda. In addition, as a leader moves forward, it is critical to understand what methods he or she can employ to overcome inherent structural constraints that can function as gatekeepers to the change process (Morrison, 2013). These things will support a leader in his or her efforts to lead rather than to simply manage.
This study has highlighted leadership styles and characteristics which are believed by international school leaders to facilitate the change process in an international school environment and eventually lead to successful outcomes. Ultimately, it has provided direction regarding how an international school leader can set the agenda for effective change and, thereby, go beyond the status quo.
In the end, it is my hope that the findings from this study will inform educational leaders in their attempts to become more adept at implementing change while, at the same time, provide them with some background material which they can use to reflect on their own personal characteristics and style of leadership. Given that we know a ‘lack of change management skills or understanding of change implementation techniques [and] the inability to alter one’s management style’ (Gilley et al., 2009: 40) will have a significant impact on a leader’s ability to implement the changes necessary for improvement, having the internal drive to meld theory, research and practice is fundamentally important for every international school leader. This is not a simple academic exercise since ‘leadership has very significant effects on the quality of the school organization and on pupil learning’ (Leithwood et al., 2006a: 14). Thus, it is incumbent upon all educational leaders to ensure that they strive for this ideal in order to achieve the ultimate goal of an enhanced society when the students of today become the adults of tomorrow.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Appendix 1: Survey
Dear Colleague,
Thank you for taking the time to complete this short survey. It will take approximately 10–15 minutes. I am conducting research with regard to how leaders within international school environments implement effective change. This survey is structured around your experience and insights in relation to the following three points:
specific leadership characteristics that support the development and forward momentum of a change agenda; factors that impact, both positively and negatively, the change process; and finally, methods of overcoming ‘structural constraints’ which function as gatekeepers to the change process.
Please note that this survey is both confidential and anonymous. While your thoughts would be valuable in understanding these questions, you are under no obligation to respond to any question you would rather not answer and you are free to exit the survey at any time. I sincerely appreciate your support of this research.