Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools

Abstract

This quantitative study investigated the relationship between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopia, based on teacher perceptions. The multifactor leadership theory also known as full range leadership theory and work adjustment theory provided the theoretical framework to explore the relationship. Analysis of data yielded three major findings: (1) while the practice of transformational leadership was significantly lower, the practice of laissez-faire was significantly higher than international benchmarks; (2) teacher job satisfaction was low and significantly lower among males; and (3) there were low to moderate correlations between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction with aspects of transformational and transactional leadership predicting job satisfaction, a trend similar to studies in other African countries. This study suggests that practicing principals, leadership preparation programs, and reform initiatives for school success in Ethiopia, consider providing professional development that includes predictors of teacher job satisfaction—inspirational motivation and contingency reward among other things.

Keywords

Teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopia leadership styles and job satisfaction education in Ethiopia school leadership in Ethiopia

Introduction

This quantitative study used teacher perceptions to investigate the relationships between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopia. While school leadership has gained publicity for “influencing the motivation and capacities of teachers as well as the environment and climate within which they work” (Pont, et.al., 2008: 32); teacher job satisfaction has gained publicity because of their role in education and attrition occasioned by dissatisfaction (FMoE, 2015). According to Kalleberg (1977: 124), “work which enables satisfaction of one's needs furthers the dignity of the human individual, whereas work without these characteristics limits the development of personal potential.” Thus, determining school principals’ behaviors and their influence on teacher job satisfaction provides context for improving work conditions, teachers’ experiences, school leadership, and productivity.

Background—Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a federation comprising over 90 ethnic languages spread over nine administrative regions (FMoE, 2015). The largest ethnic group, the Oromos, make 34% of the population followed by Amharas at 27%, Tigrayans and Somalis at 6% each, and Sidamas at 4% mostly occupying the South. Forty three percent of Ethiopians identify as Christian Orthodox, 34% as Muslims, and the rest are a mix of indigenous religions and other sects of Christianity or Islam (Trines, 2018). Ethiopia is politically fragile with quasi-authoritarian rule. The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) was in power from 1991 to December 2019 when the Prime Minister dismantled the party and formed the Prosperity Party that is currently in power (Gebreluel, 2019). Ethiopia is also one of the poorest countries in the world with 68% of the population depending on agriculture amidst worsening drought and agricultural outputs. Ethiopia has relied on foreign aid for development and faces challenges of child malnutrition, high child mortality and communicable disease, inadequate health services, limited access to electricity, and poor sanitation (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013; Trines, 2018). In the second most populous country in Africa (over 110 million), and fastest growing economy, schools, particularly those in rural areas, lack the most basic infrastructure (UNESCO, 2020). But beyond UNESCO's descriptions, Ethiopia is exceptionally multicultural, maintaining indigenous languages and cultures, politics, and religion alongside modernity. Leadership is multifaceted reflecting patriarchy, religiosity, imperialism, and democracy.

Relatively, Ethiopia's population is skewed towards youth with 41% under the age of 15 (Trines, 2018), majority living in poor rural dispersed communities (FMoE, 2015). In the last two decades, Ethiopia has witnessed a 500% increase in basic education enrolment (Mitchell, 2015; Trines, 2018). But, despite this expansion and free compulsory basic education, only 60% of children aged 5–16 years are enrolled in school full-time (Trines, 2018), 12% and 11% of males and females aged 20–24 years, respectively, finish secondary school, and the median years of schooling for males and females aged 15–49 are 3.2 and 0.0 years, respectively (Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, n.d.). A World Bank report noted that Ethiopia was “one of the most educationally disadvantaged countries in the world” for much of the 20th century due to frequent conflict, famines, humanitarian crises, political violence, and radical political changes (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013: 37). In the same report, 78% of Ethiopians aged 25–29 and 86% of women in the lowest-income quantile have never been to school. School expansion has exacerbated the challenges of the underdeveloped education system, poor educational quality and outcomes, and poor educational infrastructure. In addition, teacher and school leadership preparation programs have been described as poor or inadequate (Gurmu, 2020; Teffera et al., 2018; FMoE, 2015).

The Ethiopian education system has evolved indigenously with modern education taking root slowly, first because of external influence from the West and East through imported teachers, administrators, advisors, private schools, and foreign funding (Engel, 2011), and later in the 20th century, the need to cope with modernization (Trines, 2018; Engel, 2011). Traditionally, the foundation of education in Ethiopia is religion with significant influence from the Orthodox Church including unquestioned respect for authority, rote learning, static body of knowledge, secretiveness (keeping knowledge to oneself), imitation, and passive audience/followers among others (Engel, 2011). The earliest education in Ethiopia was provided in church schools and monasteries to elite males (Trines, 2018). After World War II, Ethiopia looked West, the curriculum was influenced by Britain and USA, and although English became the official language of instruction in secondary schools (Trines, 2018), local languages are predominant.

School leadership is rarely cited as a challenge in Ethiopia. However, poor, weak, lacklustre, or non-professional school leadership has adverse effects (School Leader Collaborative (SLC), 2018). A survey of Ethiopian teachers indicated that principals lacked “capacity to conduct informed classroom observation and provide appropriate, constructive feedback to improve teacher performance” (FMoE, 2015: 60). The same survey found that “quality of school administration and human resource management is a critical motivating factor for effective teaching” (Ibid). Other research confirm that school leadership impacts school outcomes, specifically work conditions, teacher performance, attitudes and behaviors, and student experiences (Gurmu, 2020; 2018; SLC, 2018; Pont, et.al., 2008). In Ethiopia, the position of principal is politicized, denying people with the right qualifications the opportunity to lead schools while rewarding political cronies (Gurmu, 2020; 2018). Cronies are less inclined to intentionally shape attitudes, motivations, and behaviors of subordinates (Pont et.al., 2008; SLC, 2018). And while studies in Ethiopia on the relationship between transformational leadership (TL) and teacher satisfaction have found little to moderate significant positive relationships (Tasfaw, 2014; Thomas et.al., 2018), similar studies in Singapore, Taiwan, USA, and Australia yielded moderate to strong positive relationships (Koh, et.al., 1995; Dinham and Scott, 1998; Chin, 2007). A meta-analysis of 28 studies (Chin, 2007) found that the impacts of TL on teacher job satisfaction depended on the levels of the practice of TL style. These findings put the focus of teacher motivation on leadership behaviors of the principal (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013; FMoE, 2015). Motivated teachers are self-actualized and likely to grow into leaders who contribute to school improvement (Bryk et al., 2015; SLC, 2018). As Chin (2007) wrote, “Participants in the organization constitute resource rich in ideas and knowledge whose power can be tapped by creating motivating school environment” (p. 166). Thus, the principal's leadership style and the extent of practice provide context for working conditions and school outcomes.

Literature review

Context for school leadership in Ethiopia

Like other aspects of education, school leadership in Ethiopia evolved around culture, religion, and political doctrines exemplified in the authoritarian behaviors of leaders and the passive behaviors of followers. In tandem with the political establishment, ascension to, and educational leadership tends to mirror ideologies of the regime in power rather than professionalism (Gurmu, 2020). According to Claphan (1969), under imperialist governments, emperors reached the “throne only after they had first proved themselves the most powerful men in the country,” (through leadership over armies, commander at local base, or royal lineage) (p. 112). Once anointed, they commanded absolute power and control, were sacred and sanctioned by religious authority, making their (emperor's) authority revered for as long as it was effective (ibid). Throughout the history of empirical Ethiopia, “at every level, and most of all in the national government, it [Ethiopia] depended on powerful authority figures at whose head stood the emperor” (Claphan, 1969: 111). At the fall of the Ethiopian empire, the Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia (1974–1991), the Derg, took control and embraced the socialist philosophy.

The Derg turned to the Soviet Union and East Germany for advice on educational policy (Trines, 2018). They employed a top-down approach to leadership believing they “knew what was good for the people, and therefore chose what it thought was the best alternative” (Tefera, 1996: 16). Education became a political tool to perpetuate socialist ideologies and development (Wondemetegegn, 2016; Trines, 2018). In a highly centralized system with English and Amharic as languages of instruction, the focus was “education for production, education for scientific consciousness, and education for socialist consciousness” (Wondemetegegn, 2016: 59). According to Tefera (1996), the education system was elitist, highly academic, wasteful, unequal in access, and “administration was characterised by bloated bureaucracy that stifled local initiative and efficiency” (p. 7). These factors created dissatisfaction among Ethiopians and by late 1980s, implementation failed. Poor education for a much larger number of students was compounded by draught, famine, and civil war. As described,

The quality of education was also poor, with inadequately trained and poorly motivated teachers and an overall lack of instructional materials. The system was both seriously underfinanced and inefficient—one third of all students dropped out of school in their first year. Physical facilities were dilapidated due to war damage and the absence of preventive maintenance (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013: 25).

The ensuing civil war ousted the Derg government. It also destroyed Ethiopia's infrastructure, negatively impacting the education system and student enrolments. As such, education became a priority of the new government—EPRDF. EPRDF initiated one major reform, the decentralization of governance including school leadership (Gebre-Egziabher, 2007). As explained by Gebre-Egziabher, decentralization was intended to bring governance to the people.

Structure of educational administration in Ethiopia

The administration of education in Ethiopia has remained centralized and autocratic despite decentralized management across governmental sectors (Gebra-Egziabher, 2007). The purpose of decentralization was the transfer of state government responsibilities to the regions and Weredas (smallest unit of administration) for political stability, democratized governance, and improved service delivery and equity (Ibid). In the education sector, decentralization resulted in the creation of Kebele Education and Training Boards (KETB) and Parent–Teacher Associations (PTA). In this arrangement, Wereda Education Offices work closely with KETBs and PTAs in discharging educational services at grass-root levels while PTA works closely with schools on matters affecting students and staff (Gebre-Egziabher and Behamu, 2007). While KETBs and PTAs have engaged locals in managing schools (Tucho, 2007); Gebra-Egziabher (2007: 2) noted that decentralization has failed to institutionalize “genuine self-rule particularly at lower levels of administration where governance and decentralization matter the most.” Tefera (1996) argues that decentralization was done without adequate preparation, professional knowledge, and management skills needed to oversee complex operations in post-civil war and ethnic strife. With dearth of knowledge and skills relative to decentralization, leadership at all levels has remained autocratic and authoritarian (Wondemetegegn, 2016). In a study, Tucho (2007) found that leaders at Wereda levels had lower than required qualifications for the job and stayed too long in the leadership positions working under unattractive conditions with poor logistics for school supervision. Low pay, lack of housing, and lack of proper classrooms were cited as reasons for poor school management and dissatisfaction. Community engagement was limited to material contributions with few locals involved in decision making.

Structurally, the Federal Ministry of Education (FMoE) oversees the educational sector across the country. The academic, financial, and human resource management including construction, recruitment, upgrading, and budget allocation for schools were transferred to KETBs and SBM for “more efficient utilization of resources, improved teacher performance, and increased levels of student learning” (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013: 117). Thus, state and regional governments focus on policies, standards, and monitoring progress, while school leaders focus on steering staff and community attention to student performance. Funding for schools is shared between federal and regional governments providing 50–60% of funding in the form of capitation grants. The school curriculum is standardized nationally with the federal government setting performance targets, reform agendas (Trines, 2018), and training programs for teachers and school administrators (FMoE, 2015).

At school level, the system of education is structured in cycles. Primary education is divided into two cycles, first cycle includes grades 1–4 (4 years) and second cycle includes grades 5–8 (4 years). Similarly, secondary school level has two cycles, grades 9–10 (first cycle) and grades 11–12 (second cycle), the latter being preparatory level for higher education. The average learning time per day is 4 h as most schools, except for few private schools, run on a two-shift system to accommodate the large number of learners. The federal government has an approved standard for students/teacher or section ratio of 50 students per teacher/section. This is a lower standard than UNICEF's standard of 40 students per teacher/section, negatively impacting teachers’ work environment (MoE, 2018). According to Trines (2018), access to secondary education is largely limited to affluent urbanites with enrolment among poor rural accounting for 11% and 3.6% in lower and upper secondary, respectively. Secondary education curriculum covers: three languages (mother tongue, English, and Amharic) with either English or Amharic as the official language of instruction; the natural sciences track, which include biology, chemistry, physics, and technical drawing; and social sciences track, which include history, geography, economics, and business classes.

School leadership preparation in Ethiopia

Pont et al. (2008) found that leadership preparation enhances school leadership capacity and that the degree of professionalism varies with leadership preparation, needed skills, and one's background. They present three approaches to principal preparation: “a) pre-service or preparatory training to take up position, b) induction for those who have recently taken up the position and c) in-service training provided to practicing principals” (Ibid: 108). The content or curriculum as suggested by Pont et al. should depend on degree of autonomy and accountability of the principal. Training for low levels of autonomy (centralized systems) should focus on practical and legal aspects of practice; whereas training for higher levels of autonomy and accountability (decentralized democratic systems) should be broader in scope covering the wider concept of leadership. The Ethiopian system, although decentralized remains autocratic in practice.

The 1994 reform agenda for education proposed the professionalization of school leadership (MoE, 1994). Consequently, school leaders receive training in educational leadership and management at Bachelor's level across the country (MoE, 2007). Post Graduate Diploma in School Leadership (PGDSL) was introduced in 2013 for induction and in-service training to improve performance among practicing principals some of who were not trained as teachers (MoE, 2013). Lack of talent and professionalism among school leaders have been identified as reasons for poor management and poor school outcomes in Ethiopia (Tefera, 1996; FMoE, 2015; Gurmu, 2018). Professionalization occurs formally through academic training, and informally through mentoring or contact with peers (Bierrema, 2011). It “involves building specialized knowledge and skills, incorporating a sense of occupational identity, internalizing the norms of the profession, and adapting the values and the norms into individual behaviour and self-concept” (p. 29). The process is intended to transform the trainee into a knowledgeable autonomous skilled leader. In addition, professionalization “would not only improve the consistency of practice, but also win the field the kind of status, respect, and pay that characterizes more established professions like law and medicine” (Mehta and Teles, 2014: 3). According to Tefera (1996), decentralization did not deal with the problem of the cadre of managers in education that were not professionals. He argues, “decentralized management without having the necessary expertise would lead to irreparable damage to the education system” (p. 29). Gurmu (2020) notes that the process of appointing school leaders is political with significant influence from religious leaders. Principalship is attained, not by merit, but by assignment of professionals or a senior teacher or other person from non-educational organizations (Fikadu, 2010; MoE, 2007).

Pre-service trainees enter universities directly from high school to obtain a Bachelor's degree in Educational Management (title varies by university). Without experience in school operations, candidates go through a 4-year program of 42 courses (114 credit hours) (Gurmu, 2020) covering a range of topics—supervision, pedagogy, curriculum, theories of leadership, and organizations. In-service training, the PGDSL is a 1-year program comprising eight courses (24 credit hours), too few over too short a time to develop professionalism (Bierema, 2011; Gurmu, 2020). The programs are delivered in English or Amharic, although some students do not speak these languages. The teaching method is typically lecture, with limited resources like books, journals, or technology. Students rely on rote memory and note-taking, devoid of critical thinking, projects, or practical experiences of school leadership. Gurmu (2018) reports that the curriculum for training school leaders is standardized across the country to ensure uniformity in delivery at the expense of contextualization. In contrast to suggestions of Gurmu (2020), Bierema (2011), and Pont et al. (2008), these programs provide low levels of knowledge and skills for professionals expected to impact teacher job satisfaction and school management.

Theoretical framework

Historically, the people of Ethiopia have experienced a range of political leadership. Existing theories may not cover the whole range of leadership influence that is the experience of Ethiopians (indigenous, imperial, occupational, military, and democracy). However, Avolio and Bass’ (2004) multifactor leadership theory (MLT) and Davis et.al. (1964) work adjustment theory (WAT) provide framework to explore the relationships between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction. Despite cross-cultural limitations, MLT was chosen because it is widely used and translated (Chin, 2007; Tejeda, 2001; Avolio and Bass, 2004), has been replicated cross-culturally (Bass, 1997; Bass and Avolio, 1995), and is universal (Leong and Fischer, 2010; Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2007).

The MLT comprises transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (LF) leadership styles. TL empowers and transforms followers and organizations in their values, standards, goals, needs, and ethics; transactional leadership (TR) focuses on exchange of services based on mutual agreements or benefits (Avolio and Bass, 2004); and Laisses-faire leadership postpones decisions and relinquishes accountability, offering no feedback or support to followers (Northouse, 2012). According to Bass and Riggio (2006) and Heyliger (2014), TL behavior has five components, TR behavior has three, and LF leadership behavior has one component. Components of TL include: (a) idealized influence attributed (IIA); (b) idealized influence behavior (IIB) that implies charisma and the gaining of respect, trust, and confidence of the leader as well as the leader transmitting to followers a strong sense of mission and vision; (c) inspirational motivation (IM) which occurs when a leader communicates his/her vision with confidence to the followers, instilling optimism and enthusiasm within them; (d) intellectual stimulation (IS) which is when a leader encourages his/her followers to think for themselves, to question their own and others’ existing assumptions, beliefs, and value sets; and (e) individual consideration (IC) is a personalized and individual attention to the needs and the personal problems of the followers, which is believed to make each person feel valued, confident, and proud. This also involves the leader accepting individual differences and thus, treating each person differently but on equal one-to-one basis. TR components include two categories: (a) constructive transactions and corrective transactions (contingent reward (CR)). Constructive transactions are based on CR which is defined as the exchange of gift for positive performance and punishment for poor performance. Corrective transactions are based on management-by-exception—active (MBEA), where the leader actively monitors followers in order to detect mistakes for taking actions; and management-by-exception—passive (MBEP), where the leader is intervening in the work of his/her followers when procedures and standards are not met. LF includes leader behaviors of, avoiding the setting and communication of visions, clarifying expectations, resolving conflicts, and making decisions. The full range theory is based on the assumption that “leadership is not just a set of behaviours or traits of an individual but a process whereby the individual interrelates with organization as a whole” causing influence (Chin, 2007: 166) such as job satisfaction.

The WAT explains job satisfaction as based on the relationship between worker's personality and work environment (Davis et al., 1964; Kalleberg (1977). Job satisfaction is the “overall affective orientation on the part of individuals toward work roles which they are presently occupying” (Kellaberg, 1977: 126). The causes of this orientation are multidimensional ranging from aspects that satisfy to those that dissatisfy, requiring a balance. Developed by Davis et.al, (1964), WAT is the “process by which the individual (with his unique set of abilities and needs) acts, reacts, and comes to terms with the work environment” through “behaviours which are appropriate … and the stimuli which are potential rein-forcers available to the individual in this environment” (p. 8). Thus, the interactions between work environment and the individual create levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction depending on abilities (for satisfactory work behavior) and rein-forcers (for need satisfaction). According to Kallebarg (1977), the assumption underlying WAT is the view that “it is possible for individual to balance specific satisfactions against dissatisfactions and thus [to] arrive at a composite satisfaction with the job as a whole” (p. 126). Davis et.al. (1964) developed 20 aspects of job satisfaction that have been used across the world to determine job satisfaction. They include, Ability utilization, Achievement, Activity, Advancement, Authority, Company policies and practices, Compensation, Coworkers, Creativity, Independence, Moral values, Recognition, Responsibility, Security, Social service, Social status, Supervision-human relations, Supervision-technical, Variety, and Working conditions.

Although these theories have roots in the West, they have been modified over the years and applied across cultures despite weaknesses and variations in outcomes (Tejeda, 2001). While interactions between leadership and culture vary from one culture to another, generally, TL relates positively to democratic behaviors across cultures (Jogulu, 2010). Tejeda (2001) explained that the inconsistencies found in MLT and questionnaire may be due to psychometric properties, concluding however, that it “offers much promise in terms of integrating diverse perspectives on leadership across the full range leader behaviour, follower reactions and situational attributes” (p. 51). In Tejeda's research, propensity towards egalitarianism was associated with TL irrespective of culture. And, according to Leong and Fischer (2010), “limited influence of the cultural dimension on the three major leadership behaviors seemed to support the universality of the transformational-transactional paradigm” (p. 279). Leong and Fischer (2010) and Muenjohn and Armstrong (2007) argue that concepts in MLT are universal, hence its application across cultures.

Method

This study used a quantitative approach and descriptive surveys to gather information about teachers’ perceptions on leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction (Creswell, 2013). In a descriptive study, a sufficiently large sample can be accessed enabling generalization of findings to a population (Abate, 2018; Creswell, 2013). The target population for this study was school teachers in public 1st circle secondary schools (grades 9 and 10) in the Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia and principals who had served for at least 3 years. Of the 103 qualifying schools, 40 schools (25%) were selected for the study through stratified proportionate and random sampling. First, schools were categorized by size and location for representation. School size was the total number of students enrolled in the school and school location was—rural, suburban, or urban. Once stratified, schools were picked randomly using randomized numbers and proportionately to ensure representation.

Inclusion criterion for teachers was 1 year or more of teaching experience in the school, a period long enough to develop professional relationship with their principal and able to speak to leadership practices. Using disproportionate cluster sampling method, 590 teachers were selected from the 40 schools, 510 responses were received back and 467 were complete. Each school leader was rated by a somewhat equal number of teachers. A minimum of 12 teachers emerged as sufficient to represent each school.

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Bass, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 2004) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss et.al, 1967; Davis et.al., 1964) were used to collect data. While MLQ provided data on frequency of the practice of each leadership style, MSQ provided data on levels of job satisfaction. MLQ was developed to measure “follower perception of a leader's behaviour for each of the factors in the Full Range of Leadership model” (Northouse, 2012, pp. 211–212). Empirical research on school leadership styles across cultures have chiefly used MLQ (Chin, 2007). The survey has undergone several revisions (Northouse, 2012) leading to the five Likert scale MLQ 5x with 45 items of which the first 36 correspond to the nine leadership dimensions each using four statements that represent the behaviors of the leader. Ratings items were: Not at all (0), Once in a while (1), Sometimes (2), Fairly often (3), and Frequently, if not always (4). Scores below 1 indicated LF leadership style, scores above 1 and below 3 indicated TR style, and scores above 3 indicated TL style for the individual (Bass and Avolio, 1995; Bass and Avolio, 2004; Northouse, 2012).

The MSQ was developed with the purpose of measuring job satisfaction at individualized levels. In particular, the 1967 Long-Form of the MSQ measures general job satisfaction level based on 20 job dimensions (Weiss, et.al., 1967). This questionnaire originated from the 1957 Work Adjustment Project at the University of Minnesota. Using the MSQ, Weiss, et al. (1967) demonstrated that satisfaction can be predicted from intrinsic and extrinsic measures. MSQ is a self-administered Likert scale instrument consisting of 100 items using 5-scale rating of Very satisfied to Very dissatisfied. The general job satisfaction is the average of the items for each of the 20 dimensions of job satisfaction. The reliability of the MSQ as estimated by Davis et.al. (1964) among teaches ranged between 0.74 and 0.90.

The MLQ and MSQ were piloted at nine schools with 90 teachers. Reliability Alpha for instruments ranged between 0.54 and 0.82 on MLQ and between 0.55 and 0.84 on MSQ. In addition to MLQ and MSQ, demographic data on schools were provided by the regional education bureau and demographic data on individual teachers by the respondents. The surveys were distributed through volunteer representatives at each school to teachers volunteering to take the survey in private. The surveys were returned to the researcher directly through the regional offices. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The research question guiding the study was, What are the relationships among principal leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction based on teacher perceptions?

Findings

Analysis of data yielded three major findings: (1) the practices of transformational and TR were higher than LF among Ethiopian school leaders; however both transformational and TR were significantly lower than international benchmarks while the practice of LF was significantly higher than international benchmarks; (2) teacher job satisfaction was low and significantly lower among males; and (3) there were low to moderate correlations between leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction with aspects of transformational and TR predicting job satisfaction, a trend similar to studies in other African countries.

Table 1 presents demographics of the sample. Males outnumber females by a factor of five dominating the teaching profession. There was one female principal in the 102 schools. The Mean (SD) scores on age and years of service among teachers were 33.6 (8.5) and 4.7 (3.9), respectively. For principal demography, the Mean (SD) scores were: age, 37.4 (7.3), years of service as teacher, 3.1 (6.8), years as principal, 5.7 (3.5), and years as principal in current school, 4.5 (3.3). Participating teachers’ ranks were: junior teachers (10.2%), teacher (30%), senior teacher (26.4%), assistance leader teacher (6.2%), leader teacher (8.1%), and senior leader teacher (22.7%), with majority in teacher and senior teacher levels. Levels of principal preparation indicated that 40% and 30% had undergraduate and post-graduate preparations, respectively, while 30% had training in areas outside of education. At the time of study, 60% had not attended any form of professional development.

Table 1.

Demographics of sample population.

Variable		Teachers		Principal
Variable		Freq.	%	Freq.	%
Gender	Female	92	19.6	1	2.2
Gender	Male	378	80.4	39	97.5
Educational level completed	BA/BSC	382	81.3	17	42.5
	Master's degree	74	15.7	21	52.5
	Other	14	3.0	2	5.0
Marital status	Single	180	38.3	6	15.0
	Married	263	56.0	66	82.5
	Divorced	27	5.7	1	2.5

Table 2 presents means and SD for MLQ for the sample population, males, and females. Figure 1 shows the comparative mean scores on leadership styles and job satisfaction based on MLQ. Reported mean scores indicated that principals’ practice of TL was significantly higher (M = 2.30; SD = 0.81) than the practice of TR (M = 2.03; SD = 0.68), p < 0.05. However, these scores were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than international benchmarks (M = 2.85 and M = 2.22, respectively) (Weiss et al., 1967; Avolio and Bass, 2004). TR dimensions of MBEP (M = 1.76) and LF (M = 1.9) were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than international bench mark mean scores of (M = 1.22) and (M = 0.86), respectively. The data indicates that school leaders in Ethiopia practice TL and TR at higher levels than LF. Since LF is associated with passive or absence of leadership, higher levels of the practice of LF compared to international bench marks indicate a need for improvement by reducing the practice of LF and enhancing practice of TL.

Figure 1.

Chart showing mean scores for leadership styles and satisfaction based on Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ).

Table 2.

Scores on dimensions of leadership styles (means and standard deviations).

				Gender
Leader styles	Dimension	Sample	Reliability	Men (367)	Women (101)	t-test
TL	IIA	2.30 (0.81)	0.93	2.25 (0.81)	2.44 (0.79)	0.038*
TL	IIA	2.12 (0.94)	0.67	2.10 (0.94)	2.39 (0.94)	0.014*
	IIB	2.18 (0.96)	0.75	2.16 (0.97)	2.26 (0.94)	0.325
	IM	2.19 (0.99)	0.80	2.18 (1.00)	2.26 (0.99)	0.426
	IS	2.19 (0.92)	0.75	2.15 (0.92)	2.31 (0.91)	0.095
	IC	1.96 (0.85)	0.60	1.93 (0.85)	2.06 (0.89)	0.189
TR	CR	2.03 (0.68)	0.61	2.01 (0.65)	2.10 (0.74)	0.243
TR	CR	2.12 (0.93)	0.74	2.12 (0.93)	2.27 (0.95)	0.335
	MBEA	2.09 (0.87)	0.70	2.04 (0.84)	2.28 (0.92)	0.015*
	MBEP	1.81 (0.91)	0.65	1.83 (0.88)	1.76 (1.10)	0.503
LF		1.93 (0.82)	0.54	1.89 (0.78)	2.04 (0.91)	0.106
SAT		2.14 (1.11)	0.76	2.10 (1.11)	2.27 (1.06)	0.880

TL: transformational leadership; TR: transactional leadership; LF: laissez-faire; IIA: idealized influence attributed; IIB: idealized influence behavior; IM: inspirational motivation; IS: intellectual stimulation; IC: individual consideration; CR: contingent reward; MBEA: management-by-exception—active; MBEP: management-by-exception—passive.

Female teachers rated school leaders more favorably on all but one (MBEP) of the leadership styles, scoring them significantly higher in IIA, MBEA, and TL (Table 2). Females also rated principals higher on leadership outcomes including extra effort by followers, effectiveness of leader behavior, and satisfaction with their leader. There were no significant differences on leadership style scores based on academic rank or education levels of teachers. However, principals with postgraduate training in educational leadership were rated significantly higher (p < 0.05) on the practices of all TL and TR dimensions.

Table 3 presents mean scores (SD) and t-test (gender) on the 20 dimensions of job satisfaction and general, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfactions. Figure 2 shows comparative mean scores on aspects of job satisfaction based on MSQ. Like all dimensions of teacher job satisfaction, general job satisfaction was moderate (M = 2.95(0.78)) but significantly lower (p < 0.00) compared to American teachers (Wies et.al., 1967). In the sample, there were gender differences in favor of women on 18 of 20 dimensions and general job satisfaction, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfaction. Women scored significantly higher (p < 0.05) on 11 of 20 job satisfaction dimensions, general satisfaction, and intrinsic satisfaction. Non-significant dimensions included compensation and responsibility and extrinsic satisfaction. Generally, teachers scored significantly higher (p < 0.05) on intrinsic (M = 3.09) than extrinsic satisfaction (M = 2.70). Analyses of variance did not find significant differences in job satisfaction factors by teachers’ levels of education or rank.

Figure 2.

Chart showing mean scores for job satisfaction based on Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).

Table 3.

Reliability, scores (means and SD) on dimensions (intrinsic and extrinsic) of, and general job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction dimensions	Reliability	Sample	Male teachers	Female teachers	t-test
Ability utilization(In)	0.81	3.25 (0.93)	3.21 (0.95)	3.39 (0.84)	0.103
Achievement(In)	0.77	3.04 (0.92)	3.00 (0.92)	3.24 (0.94)	0.014*
Activity(In)	0.76	3.26 (0.88)	3.21 (0.91)	3.40 (0.81)	0.073
Advancement(In)	0.80	2.46 (0.95)	2.40 (0.97)	2.68 (0.88)	0.000**
Authority(Ex)	0.78	2.99 (0.88)	3.00 (0.88)	3.11 (0.87)	0.141
Policies(Ex)	0.80	2.93 (0.95)	2.89 (0.97)	3.17 (0.87)	0.000**
Compensation(In)	0.79	2.21 (0.95)	3.16 (0.96)	2.36 (0.96)	0.058
Co-workers(In)	0.74	3.13 (0.82)	3.10 (0.83)	3.26 (0.83)	0.088
Creativity(In)	0.81	2.93 (0.83)	2.88 (0.84)	3.11 (0.76)	0.012*
Independence(In)	0.78	3.23 (0.90)	3.21 (0.90)	3.31 (0.79)	0.364
Moral values(In)	0.75	3.39 (0.88)	3.35 (0.89)	3.50 (0.80)	0.030*
Recognition(Ex)	0.77	2.96 (0.92)	2.89 (0.93)	3.21 (0.88)	0.000**
Responsibility(Ex)	0.77	3.28 (0.86)	3.47 (0.87)	3.42 (0.82)	0.066
Security(Ex)	0.80	2.59 (1.00)	2.51 (1.00)	2.87 (0.96)	0.000**
Social service(In)	0.78	3.18 (0.88)	3.14 (0.89)	3.36 (0.80)	0.031*
Social status(In)	0.79	2.90 (0.92)	2.92 (0.93)	3.21 (0.86)	0.000**
Supervision—HR	0.84	3.03 (0.99)	3.00 (0.98)	3.14 (1.03)	0.210
Supervision—Tech	0.80	2.78 (0.93)	2.70 (0.93)	2.93 (0.91)	0.000**
Variety(Ex)	0.79	3.05 (0.90	3.02 (0.91)	3.17 (0.83)	0.144
Work conditions(In)	0.79	2.41 (0.91)	2.37 (0.93)	2.57 (0.81)	0.014*
General satisfaction	0.92	2.95 (0.78)	2.90 (0.78)	3.12 (0.81)	0.010*
Intrinsic	0.89	3.09 (0.84)	3.06 (0.80)	3.25 (0.77)	0.042*
Extrinsic	0.60	2.70 (0.86)	2.66 (0.88)	2.83 (0.81)	0.081

*Significant at 0.05 level; **significant at 0.00 level.

Table 4 presents correlational analyses between MLQ and MSQ dimensions. The correlations range from non to moderate (r = 0.60). The study found moderate correlations between general job satisfaction and TL (r = 0.61, p < 001) and TR (r = 0.43, p < 0.001) dimensions; moderate correlations between intrinsic satisfaction and TL (r = 0.61, p < 0.001) and TR (r = 0.44, p < 0.001); and moderate but lower correlations between extrinsic satisfaction and TL (r = 0.49, p < 0.00) and TR (r = 0.40, p < 0.001). TL dimensions were more highly correlated to the job satisfaction levels than TR dimensions among responding teachers. The lowest correlations were found between job satisfaction dimensions and MBEP and LF.

Table 4.

Correlation table (MSQ and MLQ dimensions).

MSQ/MLQ	IIA	IIB	IM	IS	IC	CR	MBEA	MBEP	LF	TL	TR	EE	Eff	Sat
Ability	0.41**	0.40**	0.40**	0.39**	0.40**	0.43**	0.38**	0.06	0.24**	0.53**	0.38**	0.39**	0.42**	0.43**
Achievement	0.42**	0.43**	0.44**	0.48**	0.38**	0.47**	0.39**	0.04	0.24**	0.54**	0.40**	0.47**	0.49**	0.47**
Activity	0.38**	0.37**	0.37**	0.37**	0.36**	0.43**	0.37**	0.02	0.19**	0.50**	0.36**	0.35**	0.39**	0.39**
Advancement	0.35**	0.34**	0.39**	0.35**	0.38**	0.35**	0.35**	0.17**	0.23**	0.47**	0.36**	0.42**	0.44**	0.40**
Authority	0.37**	0.35**	0.36**	0.35**	0.35**	0.42**	0.33**	0.06	0.23**	0.50**	0.30**	0.40**	0.43**	0.41**
Policies	0.51**	0.49**	0.53**	0.48**	0.50**	0.53**	0.43**	0.05	0.28**	0.69**	0.44**	0.53**	0.57**	0.58**
Compensation	0.28**	0.22**	0.26**	0.24**	0.30**	0.24**	0.24**	0.18**	0.19**	0.52**	0.29**	0.36**	0.38**	0.30**
Co-workers	0.40**	0.44**	0.45**	0.43**	0.40**	0.46**	0.38**	0.06	0.22**	0.55**	0.39**	0.42**	0.44**	0.45**
Creativity	0.39**	0.37**	0.40**	0.36**	0.39**	0.42**	0.38**	0.05	0.24**	0.51**	0.38**	0.44**	0.49**	0.43**
Independence	0.31**	0.35**	0.37**	0.35**	0.34**	0.40**	0.32**	0.01	0.18**	0.46**	0.31**	0.36**	0.40**	0.39**
Moral Values	0.29**	0.33**	0.33**	0.31**	0.31**	0.39**	0.33**	0.02	0.19**	0.44**	0.32**	0.31**	0.36**	0.36**
Recognition	0.43**	0.46**	0.46**	0.45**	0.44**	0.50**	0.39**	0.04	0.25**	0.58**	0.41**	0.47**	0.53**	0.49**
Responsibility	0.42**	0.44**	0.43**	0.42**	0.38**	0.48**	0.39**	0.00	0.21**	0.55**	0.38**	0.41**	0.44**	0.45**
Security	0.36**	0.36**	0.40**	0.38**	0.37**	0.37**	0.31**	0.10**	0.23**	0.50**	0.35**	0.44**	0.47**	.42**
Social service	0.40**	0.38**	0.40**	0.37**	0.37**	0.43**	0.39**	0.07	0.33**	0.51**	0.40**	0.39**	0.43**	0.43**
Social Status	0.39**	0.34**	0.39**	0.35**	0.36**	0.38**	0.35**	0.07	0.25**	0.51**	0.36**	0.39**	0.42**	0.39**
Supervision (H)	0.52**	0.55**	0.57**	0.50**	0.48**	0.56**	0.43**	0.02	0.23**	0.68**	0.45**	0.54**	0.55**	0.58**
Supervision (T)	0.54**	0.56**	0.55**	0.54**	0.50**	0.58**	0.44**	0.07	0.24**	0.70**	0.44**	0.55**	0.60**	0.59**
Variety	0.38**	0.36**	0.38**	0.36**	0.39**	0.43**	0.36**	0.03	0.22**	0.51**	0.37**	0.41**	0.47**	0.45**
Work conditions	0.37**	0.33**	0.37**	0.34**	0.38**	0.35**	0.31**	0.15**	0.27**	0.48**	0.36**	0.43**	0.45**	0.38**
General satisfy	0.46**	0.45**	0.47**	0.43**	0.44**	0.49**	0.41**	0.08	0.28**	0.61**	0.43**	0.48**	0.54**	0.50**
Intrinsic	0.49**	0.48**	0.51**	0.49**	0.46**	0.52**	0.44**	0.03	0.24**	0.61**	0.44**	0.49**	0.53**	0.53**
Extrinsic	0.38**	0.39**	0.44**	0.39**	0.38**	0.43**	0.37**	0.09*	0.23**	0.49**	0.40**	0.44**	0.49**	0.45**

MSQ: Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire; MLQ: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire; TL: transformational leadership; TR: transactional leadership; LF: laissez-faire; IIA: idealized influence attributed; IIB: idealized influence behavior; IM: inspirational motivation; IS: intellectual stimulation; IC: individual consideration; CR: contingent reward; MBEA: management-by-exception—active; MBEP: management-by-exception—passive.

*Significant at 0.05 level; **significant at 0.00 level.

Table 5 presents regression analysis of leadership dimensions against general, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction among teachers. CR predicted all of the job satisfaction outcomes (general, intrinsic, and extrinsic) while IM predicted extrinsic satisfaction. The study finds that clearly defined tasks, psychological and material rewards, along with articulated and exemplified vision predict teacher job satisfaction among Ethiopian educators.

Table 5.

Regression—MSQ (general, intrinsic & extrinsic satisfaction) on MLQ (leadership styles—LS) .

MSQ	Model	SS	Df	MS	F	Sig	R		LS	Beta	t	Sig
MSQ	Model	SS	Df	MS	F	Sig	R ²		LS	Beta	t	Sig
General satisfaction	Regression	79.583	9	8.843	19.680	0.000	0.527	0.278	CR	0.199	2.904	0 004
	Residual	82790	460	0.449
	Total	10079	469	0.449
Intrinsic satisfaction	Regression	108.507	9	12.56	24.259	0.000	0.567	0.322	CR	0.164	2.279	.023
Extrinsic satisfaction	Residual	228.693	460	0.497
	Total	337.200	469
	Regression	76.242	9	8.471		.000	0.461		IM	0.189	2.576	0.010
	Residual	272.776	460	0.593	14.256		0 218		CR	0.169	2.133	0.003
	Total	349.019	469		14.256		0 218

MSQ: Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire; MLQ: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire; CR: contingent reward; IM: inspirational motivation.

Only statistically significant Beta coefficients are presented.

Discussion

Ethiopia has a hegemonic political system of governance that embodies patriarchal, militaristic, and religious traditions (Zahorik, 2014; Iyob, 1993). Ethiopia has also been influenced by westernized global systems of knowledge (Joshi and Verpoor, 2013). The relatively lower levels of the practice of transformational and TR styles, higher levels of the practice of LF, and low levels of job satisfaction may be influenced by hegemonic structures. Although Ethiopians have retained their indigenous languages and cultures in most spheres of life including education, they have not escaped the centering of colonial and hegemonic types of power (Iyob, 1993), thoughts, and knowledge as demonstrated in their institutional policies and management (Engel, 2011). A cursory of principal preparation curriculum indicates preponderance of western conceptualization of school leadership, organizational and leadership theories, and the use of English as the language of instruction even among students who do not speak or have very low proficiency in English. In this environment, preparation of professionals may not make a significant impact on school systems; instead, the weak level of preparation may engender oppressive work environments that likely produce dissatisfaction as discussed in the WAT. Professionalization of school leadership in Ethiopia is in its infancy, even though Ethiopian teachers say it is “a critical motivating factor for effective teaching” (FMoE, 2015: 60). According to Mehta and Teles (2014), quality management depends on quality of those entering the profession. In Ethiopia, recruits for school leadership preparation (high school graduates) are neither developmentally or culturally ready for the job as explained by Bierrema (2011) and Gurnu (2018), and there is no practical guide on how to lead schools. Due to lack of requisite work experiences, principals rely on political astuteness, trial and error, imitation, or avoidance behaviors (LF). In this study, the higher scores in TL among post-graduate degree holding principals indicate the value of work experience; while the relatively high scores in LF reflect the lack of experience among principals with undergraduate degrees and the underdeveloped leadership preparation programs (Gurnu, 2018; Bass and Avolio, 2004). For example, if culturally, a leader in Ethiopia is identified by prior acts/experiences of leadership in the community (Claphan, 1969), the same standard should be applied in recruiting candidates for school leadership and preparation programs.

Based on arguments by Johns (2001), Shahi and Wright (2004), and Yaghi (2017), leadership is contextual, often responding to cultural norms, leadership development, and local expectations. In non-western countries including Ethiopia, China, and India, leadership has elements of authoritarianism that is culturally driven, and may be outside of the MLQ range of leadership. And although leadership behaviors enshrined in MLQ have universal application irrespective of culture or context, specifically in terms of subordinate responses (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2007); the variances in outcomes and lower correlations between TL/TR styles and job satisfaction indicate that some elements of leadership in Ethiopia are outside the realms of MLT/MLQ. Findings showing higher positive and significant relationship between TL and job satisfaction albeit low/moderate, compared to transactional or LF (Table 4) reflect other findings across the world using MLT and MLQ. Comparative lower levels of the practice of TL and TR, and higher levels of the practice of LF among school principals in Ethiopia could be attributed to the simultaneous influence of tradition, western ideologies, and religion. In addition, the low Cronbach alpha reliability (0.54) and higher levels of LF may be attributed to cultural expectations of leadership—“tough man system” (Claphan, 1969: 111), poor school leadership preparation, and specifically, premature candidates for school leadership preparation.

Teacher satisfaction was moderate and significantly higher among women. Higher scores among women could be attributed to feelings of accomplishment because of fewer opportunities in formal employment. Even worse, few women (e.g. only 11% aged 20–24 years) finish high school, limiting their chances of entering higher education and employment outside of service and domestic labor. Thus, being a teacher is, relatively prestigious. In addition, Johns (2001) found that gender is a “surrogate for a range of social and occupational contexts” (p. 39) with male leaders interacting differently with women in ways that may enhance or reduce job satisfaction. However, teacher dissatisfaction in Ethiopia is well explained in the literature. Tefera (1996) pointed to the low socioeconomic status of teachers as “one of the sad stories in Ethiopian education system” (p. 30). FMoF (2015) reported that 70% of teachers would leave the profession given equivalent pay in other professions because of lack of social recognition, poor school administration, and poor resource management. Teachers receive less respect and support from their principals, students, parents, and other stakeholders and are reprimanded in public (Tefera, 1996; FMoE, 2015). Besides the indignity teachers endure in the work place, they have also endured successive governments with inconsistent educational policies, instability, and corruption that impact morale and job satisfaction (Heystek, 2016). Generally, teachers lack affirmation which in turn diminishes motivation and success (Ravari et al., 2012). Principals themselves are not spared from autocracy by their bosses (Darshan, 2011; Ferede, 2013).

Conclusion

As confirmed in this study, the practice of TL has higher positive impacts on subordinates in any context (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2007; Tejeda, 2001). Although successful school leaders use a range of leadership styles, the highest levels of satisfaction among subordinates are associated with the practice of TL style (Leithwood et al., 2008). A meta-analysis found transformative leadership “to be effective for obtaining superior performance, a higher perception of the leaders’ effectiveness by subordinate, more subordinate satisfaction, and greater willingness by subordinates to make extra effort for the leader” (Chin, 2007: 107).

In this study, predictors of teacher job satisfaction were IM under TL, and CR under TR. While IM is exemplified by principal motivating followers to develop and work towards the vision, CR is about articulating task with clearly defined outcomes, rewards, and punishment. These leadership behaviors are believed to inspire followers, make them feel valued, and optimize productivity. Based on the findings, this study suggests that leadership practices matter. Therefore, practicing principals, leadership preparation programs, and reform initiatives for school success in Ethiopia should consider providing professional development that includes IM and CR among other things. In addition, Ethiopians should elevate the value of their languages, develop leadership theories that align with their culture, and add to their culture, relevant western knowledge, ideologies, and theories.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Teresa A Wasonga

Author biographies

Menber E Yohannes is an assistant professor of educational leadership at the University of Gondar, Ethiopia. She received her doctorate in Educational Leadership and Management from the University of South Africa. Menber has served her community as a teacher, school administrator, and university lecture in Gondar region for over 30 years and has had great influence on educational leadership. Her research focuses on school leadership, teacher job satisfaction, and women empowerment.

Teresa A Wasonga is a professor of educational administration at the Norther Illinois University. She is a founder of an all-girls boarding secondary school in Kenya with a focus on girls from indigence. Her research seeks to understand organizational factors that impact educational outcomes at secondary school level.

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