Book Review: A review of: Adaptive leadership in a global economy: Perspectives for application and scholarship

Abstract

Introduction

The term VUCA (Volatile, Uncertain, Complex, and Ambiguous) emerged from the Army War College in 1987 (https://usawc.libanswers.com/faq/84869) and continues to be most prescient. Nearly a decade ago, John Kotter claimed that traditional business planning models like strategic planning were outdated and needed to be replaced with more organic and timely coalitions that could respond quickly to threats and opportunities (Kotter, Acceleration, 2014). Since then COVID, supply chain disruptions, and global warfare have accelerated the need for more nimble and agile leadership.

Adaptive Leadership in a Global Economy shows how “scholars and practitioners” can take the practice of Adaptive Leadership to “the next level” in times of complex and chaotic change.

Adaptive Leadership concepts have been primarily developed by Ronald Heifetz, senior lecturer at the Harvard Kennedy School. Each of the contributing authors quote extensively from the work of Heifetz (Leadership Without Easy Answers, 1994, and The Practice of Adaptive Leadership, 2009) along with others working and writing in this field of Adaptive Leadership.

The central concept of Adaptive Leadership points to the distinction between technical and adaptive challenges. Technical problems lend themselves to known solutions and expertise. Adaptive challenges have no known solutions and require new learning. The authors here also note that Rittel and Webber (1973) made a similar distinction two decades earlier, a distinction between tame problems and wicked problems.

Premise #1 presented by the book is that we live in chaotic times that generate VUCA conditions. Premise #2 is that Adaptive Leadership offers one of our best options for addressing those complex problems. Adaptive Leadership, according to Raei and Rasmussen, “addresses the realities of deep change, with its focus on stakeholder engagement and loss” by creating a holding environment, “a psychologically safe zone in which leaders can orchestrate conflict within a tolerable zone” (p. 3).

Further, Raei and Rasmussen push into the arena of leader adaptability. Are leaders merely orchestrating the change or are they open to being changed themselves? This question, “about possible limits to leader adaptability is one of the main reasons for … this volume,” (p.4) according to the editors.

Section 1: Foundations

The chapters in this Foundations section serve as a valuable overview of the skills adaptive leaders use, including diagnosing adaptive challenges, mobilizing stakeholders, leveraging authority, creating a holding environment, orchestrating conflict, modulating resistance, and loss with provocation to continuous learning. Adaptive leaders enhance trust and keep stress within a tolerable zone to enhance learning.

In one of this book’s early chapters (Chapter 2), Rasmussen and Boyce ground the theoretical roots of Adaptive Leadership in several related fields such as resistance to change, organizational learning, psychological safety, conflict mediation, and systems thinking. They further suggest that the field of Adaptive Leadership arises out of the give and take of creating ideas from experiences gained from practice.

I was fascinated by the parallels Rasmussen and Boyce (Chapter 2) identify between the work of Lewin, Bridges, and Heifetz. They show how each of these authors has suggested three phases of work:

• Endings (Bridges), Loss (Heifetz), and Unfreezing (Lewin).

• Transitions (Lewin), through neutral zone chaos (Bridges), and orchestrating conflict (Heifetz).

• New Beginnings (Bridges), through giving work back (Heifetz), and refreezing in a better place (Lewin).

Only by engaging others, Rasmussen and Boyce say, do we expand our perspective, options, and opportunities.

Eggers, in Chapter 3, notes challenges related to seeing new perspectives, suggesting that it is difficult to be receptive and vulnerable as an adaptive leader without tools and the mindset to do so. She offers resilience as an antidote, saying that resilient leaders are able to confront reality, find meaning, and improvise more quickly. When trained with the resilience tools and concepts she provides, participants become adaptive leaders more quickly.

Improvement science (Chapter 4) adds another set of tools for the adaptive leader. These tools include asking what problem we are trying to solve (diagnose the challenge), examining root causes, and using cycles of inquiry to continue learning and adapting. (Rasmussen, Hawkins and Crow)

Finally, in Chapter 5, Reams suggests that adaptive leaders must also be willing to adapt. “Learning … becomes a central driver for increasing our capacity for leadership” (p. 92). Adaptive leaders, like participants, must be open to seeing and confronting their own blind spots. They need to observe carefully, listen and learn.

Taken together, these chapters describe adaptive leaders as those who:

- Are willing and vulnerable in admitting what they do not know.

- Recognize adaptive challenges that need new learning and wider perspectives.

- Create a holding environment with psychological safety.

- Alternate perspectives between the balcony and dance floor.

- Manage the pace of change, and keep the level of stress tolerable.

- Maintain just enough pressure to push toward a better solution

without allowing work avoidance to arise from too little pressure.

No single set of strategies is sufficient. We need a rich mixture of tools to manage loss, enhance trust, create holding environments, address diversity, work at the edge of chaos, and enhance learning in an adaptive space.

This Foundations section provides a working knowledge overview of Adaptive Leadership, compares and contrasts underlying theories, and provides several examples of how Adaptive Leadership can be used in concert with other tools to affect successful change in a VUCA world.

This section: Adaptive leadership in action

This application section shows how Adaptive Leadership has been applied in a wide variety of diverse areas: virtual global teams; healthcare; racial equity; micro-activism; terrorism; and COVID. The major theme emerging from this section is the importance of seizing the opportunity to bring people together in a collaborative effort to find new ways forward.

Changing times, according to Charney and Gick (Chapter 7), offer opportunities for leaders to demonstrate their greatest impact. Artful adaptive leaders, they say, “anticipate” and “orchestrate” challenges by creating safe spaces to work through conflict to achieve activist goals.

Charney and Gick provide a superb example of Adaptive Leadership work in healthcare:

“One example was the treatment of patients who had difficulty breathing. In the beginning of the pandemic, healthcare practitioners followed standard accepted procedures: providing oxygen and propping patients up on their backs. Over time, physicians came to realize that the low oxygen symptoms patients experienced were unlike what they had treated in the past and were not sufficiently alleviated using standard methods. They learned, through experimentation, that by turning patients on their stomachs (a procedure called “proning”), they were able to breathe more easily without the immediate intervention of additional oxygen (Astua et al., 2020). If healthcare practitioners had stayed the course and focused on following past procedures, they would have never discovered the alternative. By experimenting, reframing, and adapting a different approach, they discovered one that was more effective and lifesaving.” (page 115)

Adaptive leadership in action

Section 2 provides rich resources in understanding some of the actions taken by adaptive leaders. Adaptive Leaders create conditions that:

• Tap into diversity and collective genius (Charney and Gick, Chapter 7).

• Rely on getting input from the team as a whole. Cross functional teams expand options and increase the odds of error recognition (Bilal, Chapter 6).

• Mobilize people in liminal space (Charney and Gick, Chapter 7).

• Create spaces that are non-linear, non-hierarchical, non-binary, (Deleuze and Felix Guattari, 1987), and places where you explore options, reframe, experiment, and adapt (Charney and Gick, Chapter 7).

• Maintain a curious, flexible, experimental mindset (Charney and Gick, Chapter 7).

• Create enough pressure to promote deep learning and break out of old patterns (Bilal, Chapter 6). Combine disequilibrium with creative possibilities to create “generative, mobilizing conversations” (Eichholz cited in Patrick and Lyons, Chapter 8, 2017).

• Create a fruitful adaptive dialogue where challenges are welcomed, and dignity is honored (Patrick and Lyons, Chapter 8).

• Chose smaller, micro-activist spaces which can be more productive (Hardesty, Boyce, and Rasmussen, Chapter 9).

These chapters examine in depth the challenge of creating holding spaces where generative conversations can occur. Adaptive leaders are urged to assemble representative groups where open dialog occurs, and new ideas emerge.

Leading through crisis

The final chapter in this section, (Le Fevre), expands the scope in time and space. Here, the author shares how the Honorable Jacinda Ardern, New Zealand’s Prime Minister, navigated a terrorist attack and COVID for an entire nation. Leaders today, according to Le Fevre, “work in complex systems where unpredictable and un-foreseen consequences are inevitable and where problems often have no predictable or known solution. Rather than being able to simply ‘fix’ these problems, leaders need to navigate through complexity, work systemically, and face uncertainty while continually changing the way they and others think, feel and act.” (Le Fevre, Chap 10, p.167)

Le Fevre notes that Ardern utilized many Adaptive Leadership skills:

- Listening to others to help make decisions and communicate.

- Experimenting and taking decisive action.

- Being transparent in what she knew and did not know.

- Communicating constantly in the face of uncertainty.

- Embracing disagreement, discomfort, and loss.

- Working to understand dissent and navigate divides.

- Connecting to values and beliefs with empathy and kindness.

“This analysis of Ardern’s leadership highlights how mobilizing others, communicating in a knowledgeable and transparent way that is informed by evidence, and holding a strong stance of empathy, compassion, and kindness can … create change for improvement in times of crisis.” (Le Fevre, Chapter 10, p. 177)

Section 3: Adaptive leadership across cultures

“If you want truly to understand something, try to change it.”—Kurt Lewin (Attributed to Lewin in: Charles W. Tolman (1996) Problems of Theoretical Psychology—ISTP 1995. p. 31)

This quote from Kurt Lewin, a pioneer at the forefront of organization development, illustrates well the essence of Section 3. These chapters illustrate what Adaptive Leadership looks like in action. Two big ideas stand out from this balcony view:

a) Take time to understand the culture and diagnose adaptive challenges.

b) Create learning organizations that learn how to learn.

Understanding culture

The chapters on China (Raei, Chapter 11) and Japan (Watanabe and Watanabe, Chapter 12; Egitim, Chapter 13) provide thoughtful analyses about which parts of their national culture are similar to and different from Adaptive Leadership.

This comparison of cultural influences identifies promising places to start Adaptive Leadership work. Story telling is a bridge to Adaptive Leadership in Indigenous communities according to Kenny and Four Arrows (Chapter 14). Kabuki, the Japanese art of improvisation, is suggested as a positive entry point for Adaptive Leadership in Japan by Watanabe and Watanabe (Chapter 12).

Elements of Chinese culture that may align with Adaptive Leadership, according to Raei, include:

Tao, the balancing of Yin and Yang, as well as Wu Wei, the idea of steadiness without intervening.The importance of saving face, so vital in Chinese culture, may slow down or prevent open discussion. Here, Raei suggests that the holding environment may serve as a place to suspend rules or allow the leader to restore harmony when difficult questions raise distress.

Getting to the root cause of adaptive challenges in Central/Eastern Europe proved difficult because the culture is in flux according to Hancil and Tolsma (Chapter 16). Many interactive conversations were required before they could build enough trust to unpack the reasons behind work avoidance.

These chapters serve as strong reminders to reflect on the organization cultures in which we each work. As we explore our own culture, we can look for values and principles upon which to build, tools that may be used to support adaption, and root causes that need to be addressed.

Organizational learning

Several chapters in this section provide case studies that show us how organizational learning unfolds over time: how a Japanese accounting firm shifted their culture to become more adaptive; how Japanese universities made the shift to remote learning during COVID; and how Brazil is growing Adaptive Leadership mentors. These examples illustrate adaptive strategies at work.

Corporate transformation

Japan, according to Watanabe and Watanabe (Chapter 12), is a hierarchical, collectivist, and traditional society that might provide challenges to adaptive learning. However, Kabuki, a highly popular, improvisational art form based on experimentation, includes elements that align with Adaptive Leadership. And corporations like Toyota use kaizen, the idea of continuous improvement, to enlist employees in weekly discussions about improvements across all procedures and processes.

Here, Watanabe and Watanabe, tell how they engaged with the CEO of an accounting firm to help shift the company “from a hierarchical leadership culture to one that was more collaborative and process-oriented” (Watanabe and Watanabe, Chap 12, p. 204). The authors engaged 15 leaders in a 5 month professional development sequence based on Adaptive Leadership (Heifetz), the principles of immunity to change (Kegan and Lahey, 2009), and adult development theory (Torbert).

Watanabe and Watanabe found that people “learn through collaborative inquiry and reflection” (p. 208). They supported that learning through common terminology, holding environments with psychological safety, addressing blockages, rotating facilitation, and (as shared above) improvisation. The CEO, too, learned to be patient, watch from the balcony and let subordinate’s ideas bubble up. After the 15 leaders developed their skills over several months, they were asked to help shape a learning conference for 250 of their colleagues to further extend adaptive learning into the firm.

University shift to remote learning

Another example of organizational learning tells how Japanese universities made the shifting to remote learning during COVID (Egitim, Chapter 13). Universities had to make several significant changes in a short period of time. They had to shift from being independent to being more collaborative; from top down management to using collective intelligence; from a traditional in person work model to a technology supported virtual workplace (Egitim, Chap 13). The universities accomplished this transition by creating holding environments based on trust, giving work back to the group, and acknowledging what would be lost.

Egitim reinforces Heifetz’ concept that, “Successful organization leadership is fostered through employee support and engagement” (p. 226, Chap 13). This leadership style is accomplished through alliances, dialog, collaboration, and shared leadership. Leaders, Egitim found, need to empathize, understand and trust in adversity, and become co-learners.

“Adaptive challenges require organization learning” (p. 230) which includes “adjustment of organization values, attitudes, behaviors, and approaches” (p. 231, Chap 13). Collective intelligence comes from collaborative thinking and learning.

Growing Adaptive Leaders: If, by now, readers are convinced that Adaptive Leadership is an essential skill for our times, this chapter by Kaspary and Michel (Chap 15) shows how they grow that leadership. The authors describe a long standing mentoring program which supports adaptive leaders who can create holding space for creativity and openness for learning. And tells us how the mentors themselves needed to grow and adapt as they sought to instill these skills in others.

Mentors, the authors tell us, need to develop self-awareness as well as awareness of others. Mentors need both a systems view from the balcony and a partnership emotional quotient (EQ) view from the dance floor. Creating generative learning and innovation requires both tapping into stored knowledge and remaining open to new contexts and new learning. Mentors need to be “recursive learners” who observe from balcony, interpret from multiple hypotheses, and pick potential interventions.

This mentoring program reflects research from the Center for Creative Leadership (2020) that found 70% of learning comes from working on situational challenges; 20% from relationships; and only 10% from classroom instruction. Kaspary and Michell are finding that mentoring solutions are becoming less prescriptive and more adaptive over time,

Conclusion

These case studies remind us that the work of Adaptive Leadership and adaptive learning is not linear. It requires a new mindset, an openness to learning and leading in new ways. And it is something that we can learn only by being on the balcony and the dance floor, diagnosing systems, building relationships, and creating safe spaces for generative and innovative solutions to emerge.

“The only one who is educated,” to adapt Carl R. Rogers, is the one “who has learned how to adapt and change.” (Rogers, 1969, p 104)

Adaptive Leadership in a Global Economy: Perspectives for Application and Scholarship, by Mohammed Raei and Harriette Thurber Rasmussen, is an excellent tutorial on Adaptive Leadership. It highlights Adaptive Leadership in theory, in practice, and through informative case studies. Both professors and practitioners will find substance in this effort to expand their thinking about how to meet the challenges of leading increasingly complex organizations.

Kaspary and Michel aptly summarize the role of adaptive learning as follows:

“The … learning experience … is transformational.” It leads to an “expansion of human potential … through holistic, organic, and generative organizational processes. Adaptive leaders … observe and interpret the systems they are leading, and design the interventions to build resilient teams, organizations, and cultures that thrive in continuous learning for sustained performance.” The experience “provides a collaborative, systemic, and systematic approach for leaders as they take a courageous stance in transforming people’s lives and negotiating the challenges of our times.” (Kaspary and Michel, Chap 15, p. 258)

Adaptive Leadership by Raei and Rasmussen provides ideas and examples with which to grow your organization into an adaptive learning organization that will survive and thrive in our uncertain times.

***

A personal note: In Chapter 11, Raei notes that “Adaptive Leadership may be essential for China’s future thrivability” (p. 196). However, he also notes that “China still has many problems which may be solved with technical approaches” (p. 195).

Those two quotes describe my journey with Adaptive Leadership. When I first met Ronald Heifetz in Boston in 1989, he already had a reputation for doing things differently to make you think and adapt.

He wrote Leadership Without Easy Answers in 1994. I read it with interest and went back to my technical challenges. Heifetz and Linsky wrote Leadership on the Line in 2002 and I carried on with technical challenges. Only when the same two authors wrote Adaptive Leadership in 2009, did I begin to realize that I was reaching the end of what could be done with technical fixes.

For the last decade or more our problems have been getting bigger and more complex

John Kotter wrote Accelerate in 2014 to make the case for “dual operating systems” which attended to both sound management (technical if you will) and agile leadership (more organic and adaptive). Accelerate describes an eight-step change process which includes many of the Adaptive Leadership skills enumerated here and elsewhere.

My four years as superintendent of Seattle Public Schools (2014–2018) brought home the reality that the pace of change is faster, the needs more urgent, and our constituents less aligned. Now, conflicts over COVID, racial equity, book banning, and countless other issues have brought the VUCA world to our doorstep. Turnover for school superintendents and public health workers are at all-time highs.

Increasingly we ask, Will the center hold? And often it does not. I now liken the role of the leader to standing atop a normal curve bravely saying follow me. Positional leadership, always overrated, has fallen to new depths. Trust in positional authority—and technical solutions—has fallen precipitously. There is far less willingness to follow our formal leaders.

Instead we often find ourselves at the bottom of a “U” shaped curve with opponents towering above us on both sides. More of us have come to the end of our technical know-how and eagerly, or desperately, seek adaptive strategies and ideas that will help us bring people together to find adaptive solutions.

This book, Adaptive Leadership, by Raei and Rasmussen is a book for our times. A book for adaptive leaders and learners. Pointing the way to leading through chaos to the creation of a new center ... a center that will hold.

For every complex problem there is an answer that is clear, simple, and wrong. H. L. Mencken

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Larry L Nyland

Author biography

Larry L Nyland, PhD, is a leadership coach and consultant in Seattle, Washington, focused on growing great leaders, teams, and cultures through adaptive leadership. Nyland is a long time educator and founder of the executive leadership program at Seattle Pacific University. He retired as superintendent of Seattle Public Schools in 2018. Currently, Nyland works with three superintendent networks, provides leadership development coaching and writes and blogs extensively on Adaptive Leadership and racial equity at .

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