A regionalism shift? Chinese undergraduate students’ choice of study in Asia Under COVID-19

Abstract

This paper draws attention to the current and possible effects of COVID-19 on the mobility trajectories of mainland Chinese students studying in Asia. By drawing on 35 biographical interviews, this paper focuses on their decision to study in Asian countries and regions. Particularly, it calls for more attention to Asia in global student mobilities and discusses whether COVID-19 has changed the position of Asia in the global landscape of student mobility. Results show that even if COVID-19 provides an opportunity for Asian universities to embrace more international students, Asia still lacks the capability to attract great numbers of them. Finally, the study argues that college students’ choice of mobility destinations is shaped by their perception of the central–periphery structure of higher education, which is hard to be shaken by the pandemic.

Keywords

COVID-19 student mobilities mainland Chinese students Japan Singapore Hong Kong

Introduction

The surge in the number of international students was a remarkable phenomenon in the post-Cold War higher education system. International students are an important source of income for universities, an important part of scientific research human resources, and potential high-quality immigrants; thus, they become the object of competition among countries (Stein and De Andreotti, 2016). Increasing competition between countries and higher education institutions means that international students have more options to consider when choosing a university. In the pursuit of overseas education, international students make a series of decisions about whether to go abroad, which country, and in which university to study (Kim, et al., 2018).

According to UIS statistics, as a region, more than one million international students are studying in Asia, and as of 2019, the five major Asian higher education systems (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore) have collectively received more than 600,000 international students, accounting for about 11% of the global total (UIS, 2019). Asian universities have also enrolled increasing numbers of Chinese students. For example, as of May 2020, among international students in Japan, Chinese students topped the list at about 120,000, an increase of 4.26% over 2019 (Qide Agency, 2021). Hong Kong has also gained more favor from mainland Chinese students, and the number of mainland Chinese students studying in Hong Kong in 2020 increased by 6.86% compared with 2019 (Qide Agency, 2021). From January to July 2021, the number of inquiries from mainland students to study in Hong Kong increased significantly, with a year-on-year increase of 126% (Wenweipo, 2021).

The rise of Asian countries as study-abroad destinations is the result of a combination of government policy and student demand. Since entering the 21st century, Asian governments have implemented a series of policies and strategies to increase the enrollment of international students and further expand their international influence. Some Asian countries are trying to deal with declining populations, and others are trying to position their universities as “world-class” through the internationalization of academics and student bodies. Internationalization is seen as an institutional strategy to secure symbolic capital from “world-class” status (Sidhu et al., 2020; Ishikawa, 2011). With the limited capacity of traditional destinations, more and more students are turning their attention to universities in Asia.

The global spread of COVID-19 has prompted changes in government border policies while also bringing tensions between countries. During the pandemic, the prevention measures of different countries were greatly different. Some scholars have pointed out that the unpredictability and changing policies of the pandemic, especially the emergence of the national mandatory quarantine policy, have directly affected traditional academic exchanges and the integrity and normality of international mobility and have also prompted individuals eager for international mobility to rethink whether studying in Western countries is “worth it” (Stewart and Kim, 2021). At the same time, nationalism and populism are on the rise worldwide (Yu, 2022). Although most mainland Chinese students still prefer Western universities when considering international destinations, many of them have turned to Asian universities, considering increasing uncertainty and racial problems (Li, Jiang and Guo). The governments of Asian countries or regions represented by Japan, Singapore, and Hong Kong have formulated various policies to promote internationalization. The key measures include improving the quality of teaching and research and improving international reputation (Chia-Ming, 2017; Phan, 2016).

This paper mainly touches on the following questions. First, why do mainland Chinese students choose to study in Asian universities to pursue master’s or doctoral programs? Second, in the context of the pandemic has the study destination of Chinese college students shifted from European and American countries to Asian countries and regions? If so, why did some of these students decide to give up offers from Western universities and stay in Asia? The paper focuses on three Asia destinations chosen by most mainland Chinese students—Japan, Singapore, and Hong Kong—to explore the attractiveness of Asian universities. On this basis, the paper further discusses whether Asia is rising as a regional study center and whether Western universities are losing their attractiveness to students from mainland China during the epidemic. Understanding the experiences of international students in the university selection process is critical to creating better marketing tools and strategies for universities in Asian countries and regions while providing useful reflections on how Western universities can continue to attract international students.

Literature review

With the rise of Asian higher education, Asia as a study destination in the global international student mobility market has attracted considerable attention. Since Phan (2009) realized that the study of places other than the West has been marginalized, increasing attention is called for in researching international higher education and student mobility in Asia (Phan and Fry, 2021). Many studies focus on analyzing the factors making students choose to study in Asia. After the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, some scholars are also worried that the present global structure of international student mobility might be changed by Asia attracting more and more students.

Generally, Asian universities have made major efforts in the internationalization of higher education to attract students from across the world by creating a welcoming community through friendly policies, generous scholarships, and safe societies. Internationalization is seen as an institutional strategy to secure symbolic capital from “world-class” status (Sidhu et al., 2020; Ishikawa, 2011). Thus, Asian universities have attached much significance to their international student enrollment to establish “world-class” universities (Oleksiyenko et al., 2021). In terms of specific countries and regions, the measures to promote international student mobility might witness slight differences, but their operational goals tend to be the same. Chou (2020) pointed out that Singapore, as a recipient country of international talents, offers policy benefits, social background, and a study environment using English as the official language, making it friendly to foreigners who want to engage in academic research in Singapore. The situation is similar in Malaysia, where a safe environment, lower tuition, and living costs are all important aspects of attracting international students (Singh et al., 2014). Sidhu and Ishikawa (2022) pointed out that emotions dominate the thoughts and actions of international students. Asian universities make efforts to let international students feel “invited,” “received,” and even “settled”; generous scholarships also give students more opportunities to explore more possibilities (Sidhu and Ishikawa, 2022). The desire for a safe environment plays an important role in a student’s decision to study abroad. Some respondents saw studying in the West as a risky option, and their families were concerned about racial hostility and gun-related crime (Sidhu and Ishikawa, 2022).

Students from other Asian countries and regions are the main constituents of Asian universities’ international student body, forming an intra-Asia student mobile wave. Before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, some scholars paid attention to intra-Asia mobility as a new mobility paradigm (Ahmad & Buchanan, 2016). For example, Hong Kong is an important destination for cross-border flows of Asian students. In 2017, at the postgraduate level, 81% of students were non-local students, most of them from mainland China (UGC, 2017). Scholars have paid little attention to mainland Chinese students studying in Hong Kong to pursue master’s and doctoral degrees (Jung, 2020), and most of them focus on the undergraduate stage (Bodycott, 2009; Li & Bray, 2007). Hong Kong is an important destination for cross-border flows of Asian students. In 2017, at the postgraduate level, 81% of students were non-local, most of them from mainland China (UGC, 2017). Scholars pay little attention to mainland Chinese students studying in Hong Kong to pursue master’s and doctoral degrees (Jung, 2020), and most of them focus on the undergraduate stage (Bodycott, 2009; Li and Bray, 2007). After the COVID-19 pandemic, the popularity of Asian universities among Asian students even rose. Mok et al. (2021) distributed a total of 2739 questionnaires to students in China and Hong Kong and found that the top five study destinations for students, were, in order, the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Taiwan.

Compared with the US and European countries, Asian students feel a greater sense of community in Asian universities. Ma and Garcia-Murillo, (2018) pointed out that American colleges and universities tend to view Asian students in a deficit framework, treating them as “foreigners” rather than promoters of internationalization, leading to the marginalization and isolation of Asian international students studying in the US (Ma and Garcia-Murillo, 2018). Thus, Asian students in the US tend to have few or no American friends and are less satisfied than Latin American and European international students (Gareis, 2012). By contrast, Asian students feel quite welcomed in Asian universities due to familiarity. Sidhu and Ishikawa (2022) summarized that familiarity with cultural norms, affinity for the popular culture of the host country, general acceptance of personal and cultural conditions, in various combinations, attract students to consider studying in Asia. For example, family ties and a certain cultural proximity prompt Chinese and Indonesians to consider Malaysia and Singapore in studying abroad because a culture that is relatively similar to the student’s home country is an important aspect of attracting international students (Singh et al., 2014). Some students choose to study in Asia to get close to pop culture symbols such as Japanese anime, Korean dramas, and Chinese movie idols. Through the consumption of popular culture, students build their individual imagination of the region and the particular “modern” and open” way of life there. Intra-Asian travel exposure also brought a sense of familiarity that influenced some respondents’ research decisions. Middle-class Indonesian students often travel to Singapore as tourists, and this exposure and familiarity motivate them to look to Singapore as a place for higher education (Sidhu and Ishikawa, 2022).

Since the pandemic outbreak, many scholars have predicted that the US and European countries will gradually lose their attractiveness to Asian students, while Asian countries such as China, Japan, and Singapore will gain the favor of more international students (Altbach & Wit, 2021; Mok et al., 2021; Sidhu et al., 2021). COVID-19 has prompted changes in government border policies, while also bringing tensions between countries. During the pandemic, the prevention measures of different countries were greatly different. Some scholars have pointed out that the unpredictability and changing policies of the pandemic, especially the emergence of national mandatory isolation policies, have directly affected traditional academic exchanges and the integrity and normality of international mobility (Stewart & Kim, 2021). At the same time, xenophobic nationalism and chauvinism are on the rise worldwide (Bista et al., 2021), introducing difficulties in obtaining permits to study in a different country. For example, the deterioration of Sino–US relations has led to the refusal of students to study in the US, prompting these students to choose Asia. Thus, Altbach and Wit (2021) believed that the US is gradually losing its dominant position as the preferred destination country in the international student mobility market due to factors such as political turmoil, gun violence, and improper pandemic prevention and control measures. Some scholars assumed even more boldly, that the attractiveness of Asian countries to international students will continue to increase, and a regional hub will take into shape, making Asia a new center in the international student mobility market (Sidhu et al., 2021; Chatterjee and Barber, 2021). Although Asia as a studying destination has brought much attention and many predictions emerged under COVID-19, many studies still lack empirical evidence. Furthermore, studies taking Chinese students as research subjects are insufficient, and these studies usually consider all Chinese students as a whole regardless of the huge amount of differences within the group. Thus, this study mainly focuses on elite Chinese students (students from 211/985 project universities) to discuss their decision to study in Asia.

Data and analysis methods

This study adopted qualitative inquiry, which can help researchers explore people’s perceptions of specific sociocultural activities and phenomena. From August 2020 to June 2022, we interviewed 135 college graduates of Chinese universities and among them, 35 interviewees choose to study in Asia. The interviews of these 35 participants were used for the purpose of this study. The main destinations of these 35 interviewees are Singapore, Japan, and Hong Kong. Even though international students studying in South Korea have increased dramatically over the past two decades, with most students from China (Stewart & Kim, 2021), we could not locate these students as our interviewees. We mainly choose students from 211/985 project universities and almost none of them chose South Korea. In the interviews, we asked about the interviewees’ decision-making experiences about whether to go abroad during the pandemic. The content of the interviews included the interviewees’ cross-border and international mobility experiences, motivations for studying in Asia, application processes, and perceptions of the pandemic and the international situation.

Data collection was carried out using snowball and maximum variation sampling. Some of the first interviewees were recruited from the research team members’ social networks. We also used social media advertisements to recruit participants. The second batch of interviewees was recommended by the first batch of interviewees. To cover as diverse a student population as possible, we selected our interviewees based on their home universities, study destinations, disciplines, majors, and family backgrounds. We established contact with interviewees through WeChat and emails. After informed consent was obtained, interviews were conducted face-to-face or via WeChat voice calls and Tencent meetings. The interviews ranged from 40 to 120 min. Each interview was recorded with the interviewees’ consent. The interview recordings were manually transcribed.

Thematic analysis was used in this study. The narratives were coded according to interviewees’ study destinations, motivations, and perceptions of Asian universities to analyze the themes based on research questions and also capture the themes emerging from raw data. This paper, by conducting qualitative research, provides empirical evidence to identify the factors that influences Chinese students’ decision to study in Asia and to picture the profile of Asian universities in the global international student mobility market Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Participants’ background characteristics.

Findings

Choosing Japan: A magnetic destination meeting new challenges

Japan has made considerable efforts in attracting international students since the 1970s, with obvious achievements. Japan has developed policies to invest to attract overseas talents and enhance the competitiveness of its higher education institutions by expanding the scale of its international students. In 2008, Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda proposed the “300,000 Foreign Students Plan,” providing support in terms of life aspects such as visa application, finance, and employment during studying in Japan. Japan’s favorable policies for international students have achieved remarkable results. By 2010, the number of international students in Japan had exceeded 140,000, reaching the highest level in history. By 2018, that number had reached nearly 300,000. From the perspective of the source of students, as of 2018, the number of international students from mainland China reached 114,000, accounting for 40.2% of the total, topping the list.

COVID-19 brought new opportunities and challenges to Japan. Even though the total number of international students has declined since the pandemic, the number of Chinese students choosing Japan as their study destination has increased. At the end of 2019, there were 345,000 international students in Japan, and by June 2021, the number dropped by 34%–227,000. As of May 2020, among international students in Japan, students from mainland China topped the list with about 120,000, an increase of 4.26% over 2019.

Under the global gloom in the international mobility market, Japan still witnessed an increase in its number of international students from China. By interviewing students who are willing to study or have already studied in Japan, the study finds out that Japan’s attractiveness to Chinese students is lower cost, cultural magnetism, and easier opportunities.

Lower cost and financial subsidies

When talking about why they went to study in Japan, all 14 interviewees who consider Japan at least one of their destinations mentioned economic factors. The educational cost in Japan is relatively lower than that in the UK, the US, and other European countries, considering all the subsidies Japan provides to its international students.

“Studying in the UK and the US is very expensive, so I never thought about it. I think it’s too expensive. The UK will cost CNY 400,000–500,000 yuan [USD 55080–68850], and the US will be more expensive. But the cost is quite lower in Japan.” (Hiroshima University, Master’s Program, Software Engineering, No.20)

Japan’s lower cost is a result of its beneficial policy for international students. The “300,000 Foreign Students Plan” emphasizes the support of resources for international students, and the Japan Student Support Organization was established under this policy, which integrated the four major public-interest legal entities in Japan (Internal and External Student Center, International Education Association, Buddy Alumni Association, and Kansai International Alumni Association), mainly undertaking the functions of providing scholarships and reducing the financial burden of international students as much as possible. Japan’s work–study system is also relatively complete, and students can also subsidize their living through part-time work.

“I made a rough calculation. The tuition fee for a year is 3 million yen, which is equivalent to more than 200,000 yuan. You can also work there. Working in Japan is also an essential part of the local culture of studying abroad. If you work part-time, it will pay 1,000 yen an hour, and you can get about 20,000 yen within a week, which will build up to 10,000 or 20,000 yuan a year.” (The University of Tokyo, Master’s Program, Education, No. 13)

Another major expense for studying abroad is airfare, but Japan’s geographical location also makes air tickets to and from China cheaper.

“It only takes one or two hours to fly from Japan to Shanghai or Hangzhou, and the air ticket is only one or two thousand dollars. It is even cheaper in the off-season, so it is very convenient for me to go home, and seeing me is not a major financial burden for my parents.” (The University of Tokyo, Master’s Program, Medicine, No.14).

Cultural magnetism

As a major country in the global cultural industry, Japan adheres to the strategy of “building a country with culture” and has always been committed to its international cultural export. Japan’s continuous cultural strategy has also had a significant attractiveness to international students, forming a special type of magnetism. Nearly half of the interviewees expressed their preference for Japanese culture to an extent, and it is even because of this preference that students initially had the idea of studying in Japan.

The cultural industry in Japan is prosperous and diverse. Among the six interviewees who liked Japanese culture, three types of cultures have been expressed. The first is Japanese idol groups, making their fans willing to study in Japan for the convenience of watching their shows or buying relevant products.

“I liked a Japanese band since high school, but there were relatively few people in China who knew them, so there was little translation and very few resources. So at that time, I started to learn Japanese to know what they were saying. After I went to university, if they had any activities, I would fly to Japan to watch them, so I thought the best way is to directly study in Japan.” (Waseda University, Master’s Program, International Relations, No.24)

Japanese animation also is an important part of its cultural industry and an important window for many international students to understand Japanese culture.

“When I was in junior high school, I liked to watch anime, and it ignited my interest in Japan.” (Hokkaido University, Master’s Program, Education, No.19)

“I liked to draw Japanese manga, and copy the Japanese on it, even though I don’t know what it means. Once I put my paintings online, a teacher sent me a message saying, since I like Japanese anime so much, why don’t I go to Japan to study? At that time, I suddenly realized that it was an option.” (Tohoku University, Master’s Program, Education, No.26)

Last, as a by-product of anime, Japanese voice actors are also unique representatives of Japanese culture. Voice actors not only perform dubbing in anime but also hold fan activities such as concerts and live broadcasts, attracting large crowds of fans, including students who are willing to study abroad.

“I like a Japanese voice actress very much. I must listen to her songs every night to fall asleep. This is one of the reasons why I choose Japan.” (Hiroshima University, Master’s Program, Software Engineering, No.20).

An alternative path to advanced degrees

With the increasing importance of diplomas in the job market, more and more Chinese students choose to apply for postgraduate study, resulting in fierce competition in applying for graduate studies in China. Under such circumstances, studying abroad has been an alternative. All 14 interviewees believe that finding a satisfactory job without a master’s degree is difficult, but the competitive pressure of studying in graduate school in China made them turn to the path of going abroad.

“At the time, my grades were above average, but it would be difficult to go to a good school.” (The University of Tokyo, Master’s Program, Medicine, No.14)

“Some of my undergraduate schoolmates have published two articles. I don’t think I can compare with them. Recently, the exams to get into a graduate school have become more and more difficult. I can’t do it.” (Tohoku University, Master’s Program, Education, No.26)

All 14 interviewees choosing Japan as a place to study abroad also represents a helpless decision when they made up their minds to go abroad but could not meet the high threshold of famous European and American universities.

“The agencies roughly estimated what level of school I could apply for based on their previous cases. My GPA was not very high, so it was difficult to get access to a good school in the United States. Think about this, if I can go to Waseda in Japan, why go to a mediocre school in America?” (Waseda University, Master’s Program, International Relations, No.24).

Rigid measures meeting new challenges

Even though Japan has its unique attractiveness to Asian students, problems have also emerged in recent years, especially after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic seems to have brought new opportunities to Japan, but Japan’s capabilities to cope with emergencies and sudden changes are seriously challenged, bringing doubts about its future in the global student mobility market.

Different from other popular study destination countries where universities receive students’ applications online, Japan sticks to hardcopy materials and still asks students to go through their application by delivery service rather than online submission. This rigid application procedure brought considerable trouble to students outside of Japan because of the difficulty of stamping the required papers in their schools and mailing them on time under the lockdown and the strict management of international mailing.

“I don’t understand why Japan didn’t change these offline procedures under the pandemic, and it has brought me so much trouble. It not only made me worried that I might miss the application deadline but brought me a huge amount of anxiety.” (Tohoku University, Master’s Program, Education, No.23)

Another obstacle Japan imposes on international students is its continuously changing country border policies. Since April 2020, Japan has banned people from dozens of countries and regions from entering Japan and suspended all foreigners entering Japan from December 28, 2020. Japan’s borders remained closed until November 2021 when Japan’s entry restrictions on foreigners were slightly relaxed, but less than a month later, Japan closed its border again. The situation improved from March 2022, when the entry policy was relaxed, allowing foreigners other than tourists to enter, and the daily limit of entry was raised from 3500 to 5000. According to data from the Japan Immigration Service, from January 2020 to January 2022, about 400,000 people obtained Japanese visas but were unable to enter the country, including 152,000 international students. These unwelcoming and continuously changing entry policies undoubtedly made international students’ applications more difficult, causing some of the students to give up studying in Japan and turn to other countries.

Choosing Singapore: “A better choice” and “A more familiar place”

Since the Asian financial crisis, the Singapore government has committed to establishing itself as a global city and knowledge hub by accumulating capital, attracting international talent, and driving innovation. To this end, Singapore has undertaken a series of “Asia” brand building, consolidating its identity as an Intelligent Island, Global Schoolhouse, and Asia’s Biopolis (Collins, F. L., et al., 2014; Sidhu, R., et al., 2021). High-quality educational resources attract more and more Asian students to study in Singapore. Following the success of serious programs, the two flagship higher education institutions, represented by the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Nanyang Technological University (NTU), have successfully ranked among the world-class universities and enjoy a high international reputation.

Currently, about 40,000 Chinese students are studying in Singapore. Prior to the epidemic, many of our interviewees said that they had planned to study in popular Western countries such as the US and the UK, but the global spread of COVID-19 and its uncontrolled management caused some students to adjust their original study plans and turned to Singapore. As one of our interviewees mentioned, “Because of the pandemic, Singapore became a better choice.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.17)

First, we find that Chinese students generally recognize the research strength of Singapore’s top two universities, represented by NUS and NTU. Among seven of our interviewees who chose to study in Singapore, five chose NUS, one chose NTU, and one chose Singapore Management University (SMU). In mainland China, graduates from NUS and NTU are highly recognized by employers. In terms of world-class university rankings, NUS and NTU usually rank highly. Students who graduated from China’s 985 Project and 211 Project universities usually choose universities ranked better than their undergraduate universities. When choosing to pursue a master’s or doctoral degree in Singapore, the choice is usually limited to NUS and NTU. Chinese students also pay considerable attention to overall factors such as learning gain and study experience (Brooks and Waters, 2009).

“NUS’s Southeast Asian studies is relatively strong... Singapore was my first choice because of it. I also considered studying in the US, but it wasn’t my first choice.” (National University of Singapore, Master’s Program, Social science, No. 8)

‘Studying in Singapore is considered studying abroad. Studying in Hong Kong is not. I still want to go out and have some fun.” (Nanyang Technological University, Master’s Program, Social science, No. 7)

Compared with students who graduated from China’s 985 Project and 211 Project universities, Chinese students from other universities hoped to gain opportunities for upward social mobility by studying abroad (Robertson, 2013).

“Those two universities (NUS and NTU) are somewhat dependent on the undergraduate education background. My undergraduate university is not very good. Although Singapore Management University is not as good as those two universities, its business school has a good reputation in Asia and even internationally.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.17)

In Mainland China, the fierce competition for the college entrance examination makes entering universities with high rankings impossible for some students. Therefore, they hope to obtain a master’s degree from a well-known overseas university so that they can gain an advantage in the job market and increased self-confidence among peers.

“To be honest, as long as there is a chance, I will definitely not miss it. After all, this is the closest I have ever been to a famous university.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.17)

Second, we find that the geographical proximity of Singapore and China and the emigrant flow from China to Southeast Asia in history have resulted in the longstanding close population flow and cultural exchanges between the two countries (Lockard, 2013). Chinese students’ descriptions of studying in Southeast Asia are influenced by social network factors such as family members, friends, and teachers (Soutar and Turner, 2002). In our interviews, more than one interviewee from China’s southeastern coastal provinces said that their family had relatives who settled in Singapore.

“There are a lot of people emigrating from Fujian province and Guangdong province to Southeast Asia... There are a lot of Chinese in Singapore, where they can speak Chinese, which I think is pretty good.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No .17)

This interviewee’s uncle found a decent job in Singapore after graduating from Nanyang Technological University and settled there for a long time. He highly recommended that she study in Singapore.

In addition, short-term overseas research experience can provide students who intend to study abroad the opportunity to establish social relationships with overseas professors and experience the local cultural and social environment in advance.

“I know that place (Singapore) better than someone who hasn’t been there.” (National University of Singapore, Master’s Program, Social Science, No.7)

“I have invested in the summer research project in the United States, but I have not received a reply. It happened that my senior fellow from the department who was a postdoctoral fellow at Nanyang Technological University returned to the department to give a lecture. I contacted him, and through him, I joined the teacher’s project team there, doing summer research.” (City University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering Science, No.3)

The previous short-term study experience in Singapore to a certain extent prompted the interviewee to consider Singapore again when applying for graduate school. However, he eventually turned to Hong Kong due to COVID-19.

COVID-19 has brought many foreseeable and unforeseeable changes to the study abroad process for students, and the instability of the international situation has increased the uncertainty and risk of studying abroad, including border control, visa control, school enrollment policy, and social security.

“When I was going to study in the US this year, my visa application was rejected, so I could only come to Singapore because I just got an offer from the National University of Singapore this year. After I dropped out of university in the US, I came here to continue my studies.” (National University of Singapore, Master’s Program, Engineering, No.30)

Furthermore, students’ final choice of destination is not random but reflects their specific “social imagination” of opportunities and barriers to development on a global and local scale (Moskal, 2017). Among our interviewees, the desire for adventure and international life experience became important factors driving students to study abroad (Kim, 2011). On the one hand, after 4 years of undergraduate education in mainland China, they hope to step out of their comfort zone, experience a diverse cultural environment and different teaching methods, and broaden their horizons in the process of internationalization.

“I feel that my knowledge will be deeper after receiving foreign education, that is, I feel that my whole personality will be improved a little.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.17)

On the other hand, the pursuit of better education quality is also an important reason for students to choose Singapore. “I was bored when I was studying at home, and I wanted to change the environment and experience other teaching methods, so I thought it would be good to go abroad... I heard that the teaching (at Nanyang Technological University) will be different, and the requirements will be stricter. (Nanyang Technological University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.7)

The relatively low cost is also an important consideration for most choosing Singapore as a study destination (Chue and Nie, 2016). Compared with studying in a Western country, the overall cost of studying in Singapore is much less.

“Singapore also provides scholarships, so the overall financial burden will be lighter.” (Nanyang Technological University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.7)

“I think the essential difference between universities in the UK and Singapore is just the price.” (Singapore Management University, Master Program, Economics and Management, No.17)

The interviewee indicated that studying in Singapore for a year would cost about 250,000–300,000 CNY (about 37,000–44,400 USD). According to another interviewee, the cost of studying in the UK for a year is about 400,000–500,000 RMB (about 59,200–74,000 dollars). In addition, Singapore universities offer generous scholarships that enhance their attractiveness to international students (Oleksiyenko, A. V., et al., 2021). NUS, for example, offers a variety of scholarships and grant allowances such that all international students have the option to apply for the scholarship program. As one of our interviewees pointed out, “MPP program can apply for a full scholarship, especially outstanding students and students with work experience can successfully apply for the scholarship. As far as I know, a Chinese student from Hong Kong with work experience got the scholarship.” (National University of Singapore, Master’s Program, Social Sciences, No.29)

Third, several interviewees expressed an emphasis on safety and race issues. In particular, the pandemic has intensified the contradictions and differences between China and the US, which also impact the overall perception of the US and its openness to international students (Kim, 2021). Some Chinese students with STEM backgrounds cannot obtain study visas due to the former US president’s Proclamation 10043 (Feldgoise & Zwetsloot, 2020). Additionally, reports of discrimination and violence against Asian Americans during the coronavirus outbreak were widespread, raising concerns among Chinese students about their safety in the United States. Compared with the personal safety risks of studying in Western countries, Chinese students tend to think that studying in Asia is safer and better able to integrate into the local environment. Some interviewees who chose to study in Singapore mentioned “safety.” They believe that Singapore and Japan, as developed countries in Asia, have stable social security.

Others expressed concern about racial discrimination when studying abroad. “A few of my classmates went to the United States and encountered racial discrimination. I think it is a serious matter.” (Singapore Management University, Master’s Program, Economics and Management, No.17) To a certain extent, Chinese students’ “imagination” of mobility is rooted in the changing economy, politics, society, and values. Their desire for a sense of belonging and safety, as well as concerns about inequality, inclusion, and exclusion, all drive their decision to study in Asia (Phan and Fry, 2021).

Choosing Hong Kong: The “winner” during the COVID-19

We found an important trend in student mobility during COVID-19: Hong Kong changed from an alternative option for students to a preferred option. Among our interviewees, research students who finally chose Hong Kong universities indicated that they originally planned to study in Western countries such as the US, the UK, and Australia, but eventually chose to study in Hong Kong (No.1, No. 3, No.6, No.18, No.33, No.35).

“If there hadn’t been an epidemic, I probably would have chosen Sydney. Although it (University of Technology Sydney) is not ranked that well, the guidance of the professor is very good. I could feel myself improving a lot when he guides me.” (City University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering, No.35)

First, COVID-19 drives mainland Chinese students to choose Hong Kong. Out of risk aversion, many students from Mainland China often apply to more than one university or destination, and Hong Kong is rarely their first choice for further studies (Soutar and Turner, 2002). However, in the process of weighing various factors during the pandemic, they conclude that studying in Hong Kong is more cost-effective.

“I think the more offers I get, the more options I have. The specific destination I would like to choose depends on factors such as covid-19 and tuition fees. For me, there is not much difference between going to the UK or going to Hong Kong... At that time, I thought that if I went to the UK and took online courses there, I would not be able to get the experience of studying abroad.” (The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen Campus), Master Program, Engineering, No.16)

“I got an offer from MIT, and in addition, I got an offer from the University of Hong Kong, which will give me the HKU President’s Scholarship... Now, going to Hong Kong became more likely because my US visa was rejected, and I could not go to the United States. Besides, the epidemic is also serious there. Although the recent situation in Hong Kong is serious too, I have learned that the Hong Kong government’s epidemic prevention policy is still acceptable.” (The University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering, No.33)

Given that his undergraduate school is on the list of “sensitive institutions” identified by Proclamation 10043, his application for a US visa was rejected, which directly led him to change his choice to the University of Hong Kong (HKU).

Covid-19 is reshaping higher education worldwide, and its impact on overseas study has been enormous. The original motivation of mainland Chinese students to choose to study abroad is intertwined with the uncertainty and risks brought by COVID-19, and the changes in intricate inter-state relations, which together have a profound impact on students’ decisions.

“The number of people infected with the epidemic rise sharply, and anti-China sentiment has emerged in [Australia]. Even the People’s Daily has advised international students not to go to Australia. I thought better of going there.” (City University of Hong Kong, Ph.D. Program, No. 35)

Second, one of the main motivations for Chinese students to study abroad was the desire to move to global academic centers in the past. Therefore, most Chinese students studied abroad in Western countries. However, existing research has shown that mainland Chinese students are more likely to recognize the educational quality and international reputation of Hong Kong universities and see Hong Kong as a stepping stone for further internationalization (Li and Bray, 2007; Oleksiyenko, A. V., et al., 2021).

“Actually, HKU is very good, and many of the teachers in my undergraduate school have studied in Hong Kong before.” (The University of Hong Kong, Master’s Program, Social Sciences, No. 18)

Hong Kong has cross-cultural maturity and the teaching model is similar to that of developed countries (Leung et al., 2008). During COVID-19, Hong Kong has highlighted its advantages, in which Mainland Chinese students can live an international and diversified life. They can also study in an international and diverse life scene while avoiding more risks brought by the current epidemic to the greatest extent. One of our interviewees pointed out that she believes that HKU, as the best university in Hong Kong, is highly recognized in the job market in mainland China. When she chose between UCLA and HKU, she believed that HKU is more well-known in mainland China.

“Actually, I think the international ranking of HKU is already very high, and its recognition in mainland China is also very high. On the contrary, UCLA is not very well-known, so I think HKU has a higher recognition in the job market than UCLA.” (The University of Hong Kong, Master’s Program, Social Sciences, No.18)

In addition to its high international reputation, Hong Kong universities offer generous scholarships to international students, adding to the region’s appeal. This includes not only scholarships offered by Hong Kong universities and the HKSAR Government Scholarship Fund but also targeted scholarships to non-local students from other Asian countries (BridgeULTD, 2018).

“As long as you study in a doctoral program, they will give you the full scholarship. The money can cover the rent and daily living expenses, and there is no need for your family to give you extra money, which is equivalent to being financially independent.” (City University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering, No.35)

Third, the perception of studying in Hong Kong is undergoing an important shift. Compared with the loose ties between mainland China and Hong Kong preciously, changes in recent years have brought the mainland and Hong Kong closer together. On one hand, the convenience of transportation has brought students from mainland China closer to the concept of “Hong Kong” as a geographical location.

“My family lives in Xiamen (located in Fujian Province). There is a high-speed railway taking about three hours from Xiamen to Hong Kong. So, studying in Hong Kong is very close to home.” (The University of Hong Kong, Master’s Program, Social Sciences, No.18)

In recent years, with a series of policy adjustments by the central government and the promotion of infrastructure construction, Hong Kong has become more closely connected with mainland China, and the flow of people has become more frequent. In October 2018, the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge opened to traffic, connecting Hong Kong, Zhuhai (in Guangzhou province), and Macao. Furthermore, according to the central government’s construction plan for the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong high-speed railway, there will be 44 stations in mainland China that can directly connect to Hong Kong West Kowloon Station, most of which are in the southeastern coastal areas and also cover the western inland cities. As of July 2019, the number of mainland sites has increased to 58 (Liaison Office of the Central People’s Government in the Hong Kong S.A.R., 2019).

“The railway runs all the way to our city (Xiamen). But I haven’t taken it yet. I only need two hundred yuan to take it from Xiamen, and it’s very fast, passing directly from the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge, so my parents hope that I’d rather study in Hong Kong.” (SMU, Master’s Program, Social Science, No.17) “If you go to Hong Kong, you will find that many of your acquaintances are there, and it will be very convenient after the high-speed railway opens.” (Hong Kong University, Master’s Program, Social Science, No.20).

More importantly, the branch campuses established by Hong Kong universities in Guangdong Province provide more choices for students who choose Hong Kong universities.

“My visa for the UK had not been approved. By June, I saw that the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen (CUHK-Shenzhen) had a plan to expand the enrollment for students who had an offer from a foreign university but failed to go out. So, I attended their interview, and then rushed to enroll in October.” (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Master’s Program, Engineering, No.16)

When talking about the experience of studying at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, the interviewee pointed out, “Although this school is newly established, its overall educational quality, including faculty and publication of papers. I also contacted my supervisor here at that time. He had published more than a dozen papers from top AI conferences, and the important goal in my master’s stage is to publish a thesis.” (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Master’s Program, Engineering, No.16)

During the epidemic, some international students studying abroad feel “trapped” in the places they aspire to leave (Lubkemann, 2008). These students prefer to stay in mainland China. At this point, the research institutes of some Hong Kong universities in Shenzhen played an important role. Many mainland students who were temporarily unable to go to Hong Kong universities due to the lockdown could study and do research there. As the interviewee mentioned an interesting phenomenon:

“As far as I know, because of the lockdown (in Hong Kong), we failed to go to Hong Kong, but everyone didn’t feel sad… Because the cost of living in Hong Kong is very high. We get both the scholarship from Hong Kong universities and can continue to carry out scientific research.” (City University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering, No.34)

Discussion

In addition to discussing the attractiveness of Asia to mainland Chinese students, we also want to point out the limitations of Asian universities in absorbing non-local students. First, there are not many universities in Asia that are currently competitive in the international education market, and they are faced with the dilemma of how to make progress and expand their influence. A total of 28 (80%) of the 35 respondents have their undergraduate degrees from 985 and 211 project universities, and their university reputation is already in a relatively high position in mainland China. Therefore, when these students consider pursuing a master’s or doctoral degree in other countries or regions in Asia, they will have the idea that there are not many “good” colleges for them to choose from that meet their expectations.

“There are only a few schools in Hong Kong and Singapore, and I definitely want to go to the top three universities in Hong Kong and the top two universities in Singapore, because my undergraduate school is not bad, so I will not consider other schools outside the scope.” (Not decided, Master’s Program, Social Science, No. 32)

In particular, we found that among the 17 respondents who have decided to study in Singapore or Hong Kong, only one is from a non-985 student. Interviewees from 211 engineering universities chose Singapore Management University. The other 16 interviewees applying to universities in Singapore and Hong Kong are concentrated in the relatively high-ranked universities in the country or region, including Singapore’s National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University and Hong Kong’s Hong Kong University, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, City University of Hong Kong, and Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Second, Asia is a more complex and variegated region rather than one that can be seen as a whole like the EU. Its internal political system, language, religious belief, and other aspects all show considerable differences and complexity. In addition, Asia at present still has not been able to complete effective regional integration. In particular, due to historical reasons, there are different degrees of contradictions and even conflicts between different countries in Asia and between countries and regions. When some students consider Japan, they tend to express negative emotions such as their personal or other family members’ concerns or prejudice toward the country.

Since its return to China in 1997, Hong Kong has become a Special Administrative Region operated under the “One Country, Two Systems” principle, with great differences in language, ideology, and culture across the Taiwan Strait (Fairbrother, 2003). It has important implications for cross-border exchanges (Xu, 2015). Therefore, in terms of identity, mainland students studying for a master’s or doctoral degree in Hong Kong still regard themselves as “others” who only temporarily reside in Hong Kong (Zeng and Watkins, 2010). In addition, the two consecutive major political movements in 2014 and 2019–2020 also aroused widespread concern among mainland Chinese people about the stability of the political situation in Hong Kong, which was also evident in our interviews. For example, some respondents said that they “will have some resistance because of various social movements in Hong Kong.” (City University of Hong Kong, doctoral Program, Engineering, No.35). In addition, more interviewees mentioned that their parents are worried about the safety of their children going to Hong Kong to study from the mainland.

Conclusion

The rise of Asia as a hub for international students has attracted considerable research attention in recent years. Some studies suggest that the pandemic and changes in international relations will further enhance Asia’s position in the international student market. To understand this dynamic, we need to go back to international students themselves and analyze their study-abroad decision-making. This study is among the first empirical analyses to explore international students’ choices for studying abroad in Asian countries and regions after the break out of COVID-19 (Almukhambetova and Kuzhabekova, 2022; Phan et al., 2022).

Judging from the results of our interviews, the outbreak of COVID-19 has indeed changed Chinese students’ choices of study-abroad destinations. Our interviews suggest that Asia’s attractiveness as a study destination is on the rise following the outbreak. However, we also argue that the trend of intra-Asia student mobility should not be overstated. Even though COVID-19 provides an opportunity for Asian universities to embrace more international students, Asia still lacks the capability to make fast and accurate reactions to emergencies like COVID-19 and to enroll great numbers of international students. We found that only a small percentage of students from China’s 211/985 universities who originally preferred to study in the US and Europe moved to Asia. We argue that elite college students’ choice of study-abroad destinations is shaped by their perceptions of the central–periphery structure of higher education, which are hard to be shaken by the pandemic. Asian countries will also need a long time to build a mobility infrastructure comparable with those of European and American countries to increase their capacity to accommodate international students.

Furthermore, Asian countries and regions have considerable differences, their policies to deal with the epidemic are quite different, and the gains of their international student market from the epidemic are also different. Among Asian countries and regions, Singapore and Hong Kong have become alternative destinations for students due to their language advantages, border-opening policies, and their policies for expanding international student enrollment, whereas Japan is hardly a shifting destination for students.

Third, we argue that we need to analyze the trend of international student mobility within Asia from the perspective of institutional differentiation. This perspective has been overlooked in previous studies (Sidhu et al., 2020). In the case of China, significant differences are observed in the decision-making of undergraduates from elite and non-elite universities to go abroad. The choices of elite college students are strongly influenced by factors such as university ranking, university prestige, and language. They prefer the world-leading universities in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. Many Chinese college students do go to study in Asian countries such as Malaysia and South Korea (Jon et al., 2014; Ahmad and Buchanan, 2016). However, when we searched for respondents in elite universities, we found finding students studying in these countries very difficult. Therefore, we suggest that to better understand intra-Asia international student mobility, more attention needs to be paid to non-elite universities.

From the perspective of policy implications, we believe that European and American universities must reconsider their tuition policies for international students if they want to maintain their dominant position in the international student market. Almost all students who choose Asian countries and regions mentioned the cost of studying abroad. An important reason for abandoning the US and the UK is that the cost of studying in these two countries is too high.

Owing to time limits, this paper has certain limitations. We mainly focus on postgraduate students from elite Chinese universities, leaving out undergraduate students and students from other universities, who also contain much research value. Future research could keep researching students’ mobility under COVID-19 and include more diverse samples.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by Beijing Social Science Fund Project (18JYC024).

Author biographyies

Feifei Gu, is a master student of graduate school of education, Peking University. Her research interests are on international student mobility, geopolitics of higher education the intersection of international politics and higher education.

Kun Zhang, is a master student of graduate school of education, Peking University. Her research interests are on international student mobility and sociology of higher education.

Wenqin Shen, Phd, is an associate professor of higher education, Peking University. His research interests are on international academic mobility (especially the mobility of college graduates, doctoral students and postdocs) , doctoral career trajectories and the idea of liberal education.

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