Abstract
There are increasing concerns in higher education for the need to move away from the traditional lecture format in order to more effectively prepare students as future leaders. Research in active learning has encouraged many tertiary educators to experiment with the flipped classroom approach that has been used extensively in K-12 educational programs. This descriptive paper outlines the design, implementation, and outcomes of a ‘flipped classroom’ approach that was put into practice in an undergraduate course in Sports Coaching. The students reported that they experienced more constant and positive interactions with lecturers/peers than in other courses. Overall, a high level of commitment to the course was indicated, while group work, discussions, and practical applications were also identified as positive aspects of the course. The most common suggestions for improvement included providing more time for group tasks to allow more interaction between classmates. Responses demonstrated a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the responses of the 12 female and 23 male students, supporting the literature that females prefer cooperative learning environments. However, no significant difference was noted between those students with English as their first language and non-English speaking background students. The authors conclude that the flipped classroom approach is a very effective teaching and learning strategy that can be employed to enhance the effectiveness of coach education programs.
Introduction
For centuries, the common approach for presenting instructional messages has been words, including lectures and books. Verbal modes of presentation have dominated the way we convey explanations to one another and verbal learning has dominated education. 1 As a teaching method, lectures allow the instructor to communicate large amounts of information to a diverse group of people in a short period of time. 2 However, there is a significant downside as little dialogue occurs between lecturer and student. Additionally, it is difficult to determine if students are learning and the lecture cannot facilitate skills training or practical application of the material being studied. 3 The advent of computer technology has enabled an explosion in the availability of visual ways of presenting material, including large numbers of static images as well as dynamic images in the form of animation and video. These developments have created an environment wherein instructional messages can move beyond the purely verbal. The rationale for multimedia presentations is that it takes advantage of our capacity to process information. 4 When material is presented only in the verbal mode, the potential contribution of our capacity to also process material in the visual mode is ignored. 1
Higher education students are active learners, using e-books, web content and social media to explore and discover in their daily lives. It is little wonder that students become discouraged and disengaged in traditional lecture-based courses. Students increasingly expect a classroom experience that helps them develop knowledge rather than passively receive one-dimensional information. 5 Students want to do something meaningful with content instead of just listening to a lecture. They also expect to meet with discussion groups and project teams and work on assignments during class time. 2 Another factor that is playing a role in student perceptions is the value gained from education in a difficult economy. Instructors need to make education worth a student’s investment of time and money by ensuring that the classroom experience is productive and meaningful. 5
‘Active learning’ promotes the application of content material while it is still being learned and presented. It engages students more deeply in the process of learning course material by encouraging critical thinking and fostering the development of self-directed learning. Active learning affords the opportunity for application and practice and the asking of questions. Additionally, it is possible to assess and remediate student understanding in real time. 3 Developments in active learning pedagogy, coupled with advancements in instructional technology, have prompted some educators to implement a new educational model called the ‘flipped classroom’. 6 Instructors pre-record lectures and post them online for students to watch on their own so that class time can be dedicated to student-centred learning. This frees up classroom time to promote active learning through collaborative, project-based learning using simple display and sharing tools. 7 The flipped classroom model utilizes multimedia as the cornerstone, providing opportunities for students to learn, opportunities that are not possible with other media. 8 Examples of these technologies include lecture capture and online podcasts, courseware, tutoring, content access, social networking, and collaboration. 5
The philosophy behind the flipped classroom model is that it allows instructors to teach both content and process. Mazur suggested that ‘learning is a two-step process. First you must have some transfer of information; second you must make sense of that information by connecting it to your own experiences and organizing the information in your brain’. 9 Just one of the two steps is insufficient – both components are essential for effective learning. In a traditional classroom, the transfer of information happens during actual lecture time and students are left to their own devices to process the information. ‘You can’t assimilate that much material that quickly. It takes time. You need to take the information and adapt it to your own experiences, resolve misconceptions you may have, and so on’. 10 The assimilation component is obviously the more difficult and time-consuming of the two steps and lends itself particularly to the flipped classroom approach.
The flipped classroom provides instructors with an opportunity to develop lifelong learning, as well as meet both of Mazur’s objectives in a classroom experience. The ‘flipped classroom’ is a pedagogical model in which the typical lecture and homework elements of a course are reversed. 5 The value of the flipped classroom is the repurposing of class time into a workshop where students can inquire about lecture content, test their skills in applying knowledge, and interact with one another in hands-on activities. During class sessions instructors function as coaches or advisors, encouraging students in individual inquiry and collaborative effort. 11 The approach provides instructors with opportunities to engage a wide range of learning styles and implement pedagogies that encourage problem-solving during dedicated class time. Most importantly, the flipped classroom model is student-centred. Each student is responsible for coming to class with a basic understanding of the materials so that he or she can fully participate and engage in class discussion. 2 The acquisition of content knowledge is self-paced and self-guided, enabling students to control when and how much they view. To facilitate learning, instructors guide students to the content, organize interactive experiences, challenge students to think creatively, and provide expert insight and feedback. 12
In essence, flipping the classroom means that students gain first exposure to new material outside of class, usually via reading or lecture videos, and then use class time to do the more difficult work of assimilating that knowledge, perhaps through problem-solving, discussion, or debates. In terms of Bloom’s revised taxonomy, 13 this means that students are doing the lower levels of cognitive work (gaining knowledge and comprehension) outside of class, and focusing on the higher forms of cognitive work (application, analysis, synthesis and/or evaluation) in class, where they have the support of their peers and instructor. Active learning in the classroom time allows opportunities for the teaching team to circulate around the class, listen to students as they discuss key concepts, prompt students who are reticent to engage, and provide as much input and feedback as possible to students’ direct questions 14 in order to assist the development of students as experts in their field. Educators continually seek new strategies to engage students in the classroom in order to increase the effectiveness of the learning process. 15 In semester 1, 2014, Sports Coaching, an undergraduate course in the Bachelor of Exercise Science at Griffith University was ‘flipped’ in order to promote cognitive development and develop innovation through collaboration. 6 The purpose of this paper is to describe the philosophy and methodology used in the redesign of the course and to outline the outcomes of this change. This article may be useful for those involved in the delivery of coach education programs.
Method
Course redesign
Sports Coaching is a second year elective course in the Bachelor of Exercise Science program at Griffith University with enrolments traditionally ranging from 30 to 60 students. The goals of the course redesign were to: (1) improve students’ learning and develop their abilities in problem-solving in team environments; (2) fully engage both students and lecturer in all stages of the learning process; and (3) stimulate higher order thinking through the use of modern technologies and ‘real-life’ settings. In the 13 years prior to this course, the course had included a two-hour weekly lecture/workshop and 10 two-hour practical tutorials. These workshops involved some lecturing on important concepts followed by a variety of learning activities. Students were not required to specifically prepare for the workshops and were assessed through a mid-semester test and a final examination. The tutorials provided students with relevant learning experiences in practical coaching situations and were productive and enjoyed by students. The lecturer had taught the course since 2001 and decided that the ‘flipped classroom’ model provided an opportunity to change the workshop component of this course to increase student engagement and learning. The lecturer had more than 20 years’ teaching experience at the tertiary level and was quite comfortable with informal student-centred discussions. Three essential elements were implemented to support student learning in this change process: (a) first exposure to content prior to class; (b) student-centred in-class activities; and (c) appropriately aligned assessment. Figure 1 demonstrates the format that was adopted for the redesign of the course.
Flipped classroom format for 2003AHS (Sports Coaching) in 2014.
First exposure to content prior to class
Variety in the pace and format of undergraduate teaching is an essential feature of good teaching and enthusiastic learning. This approach particularly appeals to students in the 21st century where the use of technology is flexible and appropriate to their learning. 1 Prior to each class, students were required to review the online content material, complete the assigned readings, and view the relevant videos. The flipped classroom allowed these students to gain first exposure to new material outside of the group learning space where they could work on mastering concepts in their own time. 16
Student-centred in-class activities
Each student was responsible for coming to class with a basic understanding of the material so that they could fully engage in class discussion. The use of weekly quizzes, worth 5%, provided additional motivation for students to be fully prepared. The format for each workshop is clearly outlined in Figure 1. Students were encouraged to work collaboratively on authentic problems, giving each other support and feedback, allowing the lecturer opportunities to circulate among students to check on their understanding, answer questions, and prompt them to think more deeply. The key benefit of this approach was in providing regular feedback to help individual students develop expertise at their particular readiness level.
Appropriately aligned assessment
Appropriately aligned assessment was a central principle of the course design. Previous assessment included a mid-semester test (20%) and a final examination (30%), as well as an observation assignment (20%) and practical teaching and reflection (30%). The ‘flipped classroom’ approach allowed for the redesign of the assessment to support student learning. It included the best 10 results of weekly quizzes (5% each) to replace the 50% for the mid-semester and final examinations. Quizzes were based on online content, assigned readings and class discussions and were held during the final 20 minutes of each workshop. Additional time was allowed for non-English speaking background (NESB) students who frequently reported translation difficulties. Each test included five multiple-choice questions which focused on lower order cognitive skills and a short-answer question that required students to write a paragraph to contextualize their learning and utilize higher order thinking. At least 10 minutes of each workshop was devoted to assist students prepare for the major assessment items (coach observation assignment and practical teaching) and provide feedback on these assessment items.
Course implementation
In semester 1, 2014, the redesigned 2003AHS course was delivered to 35 students. The students met in two-hour workshops over a 13-week period. The course convenor was responsible for facilitating all workshops and for uploading the course content, using Blackboard and Learning@Griffith. Attendance at workshops was compulsory as weekly quizzes were held at this time, totalling 50% of the total assessment for the course. The convenor was aware that the flipped classroom was likely to be a new experience for the majority of students. To alleviate any anxiety, a comprehensive course profile was provided including a thorough description of the course. At the commencement of the course, explanations were provided for the course redesign and the anticipated benefits for students. Students were made aware of the expectations that they would review material prior to each class and fully engage in the workshop activities. Students were also given a practice test in week 1 and were allowed to drop their worst two results from the 12 quizzes to reduce any stress related to assessment. The course redesign required a significant increase in preparation time compared to previous course delivery. Additional time was necessary to upload content material, prepare active learning activities, and find appropriate video material. However, the ability to reuse these resources and improved efficiencies will reduce these time commitments in future years. The flipped classroom model required a lecturer comfortable and proficient in leading and managing in-class activities with a different set of skills to that necessary in a traditional lecture environment.
Results
In order to understand the impact of this educational approach to tertiary education, it is essential to examine how students perform and perceive the flipped classroom experience. The students were surveyed at the end of the course as to their perceptions of the course redesign; 32 responses were received from the cohort of 35 students. This descriptive study provides an understanding of students’ experiences and perceptions of the flipped classroom approach. A significant amount of rich data was gathered to add strength to what was known through previous research. The use of descriptive research allowed the researcher to use both quantitative and qualitative data to determine characteristics about students’ experiences and perceptions. Another advantage of this type of research was the flexibility afforded in the development of research questions. However, confidentiality may be a limitation in this study as subjects may not always have been truthful and may have given answers the researcher wanted to hear. The main disadvantage of this type of research is the cause behind a phenomenon cannot be identified; the researcher can only describe and report the observations. The small number of student responses also limits the generalizations that can be made from the study.
Demographics of students completing survey.
Attitudes to pre-class activities.
Students reported positive attitudes toward the pre-class activities with all means above the mid-point. The highest agreement from students was the pre-class activities: helped them to take responsibility for their own learning; were easily accessible; and prepared them for the in-class activities. The lowest agreement from students (although still highly rated) was that the pre-class activities motivated them to learn more. Students also reported that the pre-class activities were not too challenging. The majority of students (83.9%) indicated that the amount of work required before class was ‘about right’. Four students (12.5%) suggested that the amount was ‘too much’ and one student (3.2%) noting that it was ‘too little’.
Students’ responses to open-ended questions about the pre-class activities were generally positive. In relation to their preparation for class, students suggested they had a better understanding of the topic before class, better recall, were more prepared and able to retain more information. Other perceived benefits included being able to evaluate their own ideas and contribute to class discussions. Students also enjoyed observing applications of content in workshops and learning at their own pace. Student responses indicated they valued the Powerpoint presentations, as well as the set readings, videos, and textbook. On the other hand, students identified technical issues as well as the associated time and motivation to complete tasks as the main problematic issues around the pre-class activities.
Student responses to in-class activities.
Student responses to statements about course.
I found it much easier to retain information. I was able to apply knowledge in a more practical way which made me confident. I was less anxious and able to enjoy the course more.
Student responses to teaching of the course.
I loved it – it enabled me to build closer relationships with my classmates. Being a more interactive classroom also helped me to concentrate and enjoy the learning environment.
The flipped classroom approach is very unique and useful as the students not only learn from the teacher, but also from each other through discussion.
I find I learn more with this approach. There are many different opinions which allow a better learning experience. It’s more fun and interactive and gets you talking to most of the class rather than the one or two you are currently sitting next to.
Student perceptions of elements of the ‘flipped classroom’ approach used in the course.
Discussion
An initial review of the results has provided insight into the use of the flipped classroom approach as a teaching tool and its effectiveness in a coach education context. Overall, implementation of the model was well received by students. The three essential elements of first exposure to content prior to class, active learning in-class activities, and appropriately aligned assessment proved effective in supporting students’ learning experiences in this change process. The offloading of content on Blackboard allowed students to explore the new material and develop new skills in their own time, motivated by the knowledge that they would have the opportunity to apply and evaluate this new information through active learning in-class exercises. Furthermore, their abilities were strengthened by regular assessment in the form of weekly quizzes, practical coaching performances, and a coach observation assignment. Both formative and summative feedback was provided on a regular basis which enabled students to identify their own strengths and weaknesses. Students also appeared more confident in their ability to apply knowledge and skills in practical coaching sessions.
The majority of students’ comments from questionnaires indicated positive responses from the change to the flipped classroom model. Grades are considered important by students and they quickly became aware that they had to work continually to keep up with the material in order to earn a high grade in the course. Students indicated a decreased level of anxiety and increased enjoyment of the course as a result of weekly tests replacing the previous mid-semester and final examinations. Students preferred regular weekly assessment rather than cramming for examinations. As students were required to apply information in the in-class activities, they indicated they were able to retain this knowledge more effectively than in courses using the traditional lecture format that is concurrent with the findings from the review of literature. Students were able to develop communication skills and a command over subject material through small group interaction, presentation of results to the entire class, and the use of electronic media. Students enjoyed the opportunity during the in-class activities to ask questions of the lecturer or fellow students. Students learned not only from the lecturer, but also from each other as students explained concepts in different ways and offered a variety of opinions on particular issues related to sports coaching, producing a more effective learning experience. Students appreciated the high level of interaction and indicated they made new friends through the in-class activities. This interaction was beneficial in two ways: the students were able to clear up any confusion immediately; and the lecturer was able to monitor performance and comprehension. The importance of this course outcome should not be underestimated as it contributed significantly to the students’ overall enjoyment of the course.
The small number of students in the class was a limitation of the study. Although there were only 35 students in the cohort, the flipped classroom approach could be successfully implemented with somewhat larger classes of 60–80 students with an experienced lecturer. Postgraduate students or assistants could be used to help with larger groups, either working in a large flat space which allows for group discussions or taking smaller groups to separate rooms for discussions. Implementation of the flipped classroom approach definitely poses a challenge to educators who are accustomed to the traditional lecture format. The flipped classroom approach required considerable pre-planning. During the summer break, approximately three hours per topic was required to construct Powerpoint slides with sound. Additionally, a workbook study guide was produced containing an outline of the majority of in-class activities. However, this pre-planning reduced the time required to prepare for each workshop as a significant amount of work was completed before the start of the semester. These course materials need to be reviewed and adjusted on a regular basis to ensure the currency of the content material and the relevance of the in-class activities to students’ learning styles.
A number of new strategies have been identified that would enhance future students’ learning and further foster their motivation. Students need to be educated more clearly about the benefits of the flipped classroom model to their learning and future career at the commencement of the course. This process could be reinforced by an analysis of relevant research studies. It is essential that students are made aware that the pre-class workload will be heavier as it replaces time spent studying for the mid-semester and final examinations as in the previous years. Students need to appreciate the value of prior preparation and commitment for effective contribution to in-class activities and success in the weekly assessment tasks.
Conclusion
Implementing the flipped classroom approach presents a challenge to educators accustomed to the traditional lecture format. However, the positive outcomes of this curriculum change suggest that the model deserves to be considered when planning courses in higher education in order to maximize student learning and engagement in order for students to develop as independent and active learners. Evidence suggests that students generally preferred the flipped classroom approach to a traditional lecture scenario and would prefer to take future courses in Exercise Science using the same format. Although it was difficult to appeal to the preferred learning style of every student, the flipped classroom approach utilized teaching strategies that engaged a wide spectrum of learners. Students were provided with more guidance and feedback from the lecturer in the in-class activities that were not possible under previous methods of course delivery. Additionally, students and the lecturer were more effective in sharing the responsibility for meaningful learning and academic excellence. Finally, the lecturer was able to employ the interactive dynamics of the classroom in order to develop higher order thinking skills and better prepare students for careers in sports coaching. It is hoped that this research will stimulate educators to consider teaching and learning strategies that might improve the effectiveness of the flipped classroom approach as an educational experience.
The flipped classroom approach has significant potential to improve the effectiveness of coach education programs by providing first exposure to material before group meetings in order to free up time and providing opportunities for greater depth in group discussions. Several youth organizations have utilized this approach (without naming it Flipped Classroom) in their coach education programs. For example, The First Tee, an organization that promotes positive youth development through the game of golf requires coaches-in-training to complete an online course prior to attending the first three levels of hands-on training activities. The second step would require instructors to plan authentic student-centred in-class activities similar to those described in this paper in order to fully engage students in discussion in collaborative group scenarios. The final element in the learning design would require course developers to appropriately align assessment tasks to consolidate and apply the newly acquired knowledge and skills in ‘real-world’ coaching scenarios.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.