Contemporary practices of strength and conditioning coaches in professional cricket

Introduction

In professional sport, strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches are integral to the athlete’s multi-disciplinary support team.^1,2 The roles and responsibilities of S&C coaches are varied, with the primary objectives of improving physical performance and decreasing injuries.^1–4 To become a competent S&C coach, academic and professional qualifications can be undertaken, and current S&C guidelines and scientific literature used to inform practice.^1,2,5 For example, in cricket there is various research available on the physiological and movement demands of different game formats,^6–11 changes in physical performance across a season,^12,13 and physical attributes required and possessed for different player roles.^3,14–22 However, given the lack of research addressing the practices of S&C coaches in professional cricket, it is uncertain whether theoretical and research-informed guidelines are being adopted in actual practice, therefore warranting further investigation. ²³

It has been shown that S&C coaches across different countries, sports, and expertise levels, recommended using fundamental principles and exercises to provide a strong foundation for S&C programs. ²⁴ Whereas, at the professional level this can be more complex, with a need to tailor programs to each players profile (e.g., injury history, goals, and position).^12,23,25 For example, fast bowlers can bowl at speeds above 140 kph more than 120 times per day during a match. ¹ Where higher lower-body power (static jump), upper-body power (bench throw), upper-body strength (one-repetition maximum pull up), and speed (0–20 m sprint time) test scores, have been associated with faster bowling velocities.^15,20 Batters score runs by hitting a bowled ball over the boundary or repeatedly running between the wickets. Where superior upper-body strength (one-repetition maximum bench press) ²² and repeated sprint ability, ¹⁴ are related to greater hitting distance and batting running performance. Furthermore, when fielding players repetitively throw a cricket ball at high-velocity. Therefore, S&C coaches are advised to implement progressively overloaded programs including upper-body hypertrophy, maximum strength, strength endurance, and high velocity exercises, to prepare players for high throwing loads, optimize throwing performance and decrease injuries. ³ Although there are commonalities in the physical demands and recommended areas for physical development across on-field positions (e.g., upper-body strength), there are differences that S&C coaches should also cater for.

Cricket is unique as players participate in different game formats, and at the professional level, may simultaneously play for their country, franchise, and international 20/20 teams. Furthermore, the rising popularity of shorter game formats such as 20/20, has increased the physical demands on players, regarding match intensity and the number of fixtures played. ¹² For example, approximately 50–100% more maximal sprints are completed per hour during 20/20, compared to multi-day games (i.e., over five days).^8,9 Therefore, players who can maintain optimal physical condition throughout a season and congested fixture schedules, ¹¹ using appropriate physical preparation and recovery strategies, are more likely to consistently perform and reduce injuries.^26,27 All this information needs to be taken into consideration by S&C coaches when planning and conducting their S&C training programs.

Various studies have investigated the practices of S&C coaches in professional sports, including: American football, ²⁸ ice hockey, ²⁹ baseball, ³⁰ basketball, ³¹ rugby union, ³² swimming, ³³ and cricket. ²³ However, the aforementioned cricket study had a very small sample size (n = 5) of S&C coaches working in a professional South African franchise league. ²³ Although this study provides valuable insight, it is not possible to make strong inferences regarding the practices of these S&C coaches or whether practices can apply generally across S&C coaches in different leagues and countries. To gain a more detailed understanding of the contemporary practices of S&C coaches, a more global sample is required.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the practices of S&C coaches from various countries where professional cricket is played. This analysis will help identify the consistency between proposed guidelines and actual practice, while also facilitating the development of cricket-specific research and education resources in S&C.

Methods

Results

Background information

Thirty-three S&C coaches with a mean age of 34.7 ± 7.6 years and S&C experience of 10.6 ± 5.9 years, participated in this study. The response rate was similar to prior surveys in other professional sports (n = 20–43),^28–33and higher than a survey conducted in professional cricket (n = 5). ²³ Responses were received from seven countries where S&C coaches worked with professional international and club teams (see Figure 1).

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 1.

Countries of the professional leagues and/or teams strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) work.

Professional cricket coaching certifications were held by 40% of S&C coaches, with the most reported being a Cricket South Africa (CSA) Level 2 (12%), English Cricket Board (ECB) Level 2 (9%), and CSA Level 3 (6%). Degrees were held by 97% of S&C coaches and 91% were in a sports science related field. The most reported degree levels were: Master’s degree (63%), Bachelor’s degree (34%), and Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) (3%). Strength and conditioning certifications were held by 73% of coaches and 12% held more than one. The most reported S&C related certifications were: United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA) Accredited Strength and Conditioning Coach (ASCC) (36%), National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) (24%), and Australian Strength and Conditioning Association (ASCA) Strength and Conditioning Coach Accreditation (15%). An S&C internship was completed by 76% of coaches and was completed: before certification (67%), during certification (36%), and after certification (24%).

Muscular strength and power development

Off-Season: Variability in the reported number of strength training sessions conducted each week were: 3 sessions (64%), 4 sessions (30%), 2 sessions (27%), 5 sessions (9%), and 6 sessions (9%). Whereas, 46–60 min (57%), 61–75 min (36%), 31–45 min (30%), 76–90 min (18%), and 15–30 min (3%), were the most reported length of time for strength sessions. The most prescribed set ranges were: 3–4 (88%), 5–6 (61%), 1–2 (24%), and 7–8 (9%). Other responses included: “Set ranges are 2–5, but mostly 3–5 range off-season, we hardly ever do more than 5 sets” and “Depends on the phase we are working on”. The most reported repetition ranges used per set were 4–6 (82%), 1–3 (49%), 10–12 (46%), 7–9 (42%), 13–15 (12%), and 15+ (9%). Other responses included: “Main exercises 3–5 reps and assistance exercises typically 8–12 reps, depending on the exercise and objective” and “7+ for assistance exercises”.

In-Season: Variability in the reported number of strength training sessions conducted each week were: 2 sessions (67%), 1 session (52%), 3 sessions (42%), and 4 sessions (12%). Whereas, 31–45 min (70%), 16–30 min (46%), 46–60 min (42%), 61–75 min (12%), 76–90 min (3%), and 0–15 min (3%), were the most reported length of time for strength sessions. Other responses included: “30–45 min session’s in-season, but try to keep shorter”. The most prescribed set ranges were: 3–4 (91%), 1–2 (61%), and 5–6 (15%). Other responses included: “2–5 set and rep range in-season, however, more work in 2–3 set range to reduce volume”. The most reported repetition ranges used per set were: 4–6 (94%), 1–3 (39%), 7–9 (27%), and 10–12 (15%). Other responses included: “Main exercises usually 3–5 reps and assistance exercises typically 8–12 reps”, “I use the same rep ranges in and out of season”, and “as per individual needs”.

Periodization, Set Loads, and Recovery: Periodization strategies were used by 97% of coaches to structure programs and other responses included “Given the seasonal nature of our league we do not have full control of players’ workload and schedules. Players arrive 7 days before league commencement and leave thereafter, returning to domestic or international programs”. The most used methods for determining set loads are presented in Figure 2, and other responses included: “Sometimes based on how the athlete feels may change the planned loads”, “Players use session RPE [rating of perceived exertion], indicating the desired session intensity”, “reps in reserve”, and “technical breakdown”. Recovery time prescribed by S&C coaches between S&C training, sports practice, and competition is presented in Table 1.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 2.

Methods used by strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) to determine set loads.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 1.

The duration of recovery time that strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) prescribed between speed, strength and power development sessions with sports training and competition.

Question	On the same day	24 h	36 h	48 h	>48 h
Recovery time between speed development and sports training sessions	79%	18%	0%	3%	0%
Recovery time between strength/power development sessions and sports training sessions	61%	30%	3%	6%	0%
Recovery time between speed development sessions and competition	6%	27%	21%	42%	3%
Recovery time between strength/power development sessions and competition	9%	27%	18%	39%	6%

Resistance Training: All S&C coaches used resistance type training, with concentric (94%), isometric (94%), eccentric (91%), variable (e.g., bands and chains) (76%), machine (33%), and isoinertial (e.g., flywheel) (15%), being the most common modes of resistance exercises prescribed. Other responses included: “Kettlebells, barbells, dumbbells, resistance bands, and bodyweight are the main forms of resistance used, machines are used sparingly and typically only for specific rehab exercises” and “Whatever’s needed to get the desired stimulus response”. Olympic weightlifting and associated derivatives were used by 88% of coaches. An overview of the most prescribed Olympic weightlifting exercises are presented in Figure 3. Other responses included: “Trap bar pulls and jumps”, “Split snatch/clean, dumbbell single arm snatch, and dumbbell jerk”, and “Use for some competent athletes but not a go to”. The top five weightlifting exercises prescribed by S&C coaches within their training programs were ranked in order, responses are presented in Table 2.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 3.

Olympic Weightlifting exercises strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) prescribe.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 2.

Strength and conditioning coaches ranking in order the five most important weightlifting exercises in their program.

Order of importance	Exercises	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Squat and variations	55%
	Deadlift and variations	33%
	Clean and derivatives	6%
	Glute activation, core exercises	3%
	Other: bilateral/unilateral hip dominant exercise, single leg hip dominant, total body circuit training, bilateral lower body, individual development exercises, lifts/pulls	n/a
2	Deadlift and variations	36%
	Squat and variations	18%
	Clean and derivatives	9%
	Hip thrust and variations, snatch and derivatives	6%
	Jerk and variations, glute ham raise, lunge and variations	3%
	Other: single leg knee dominant, bilateral/unilateral knee dominant exercise, lower body pull, push/pull training, eccentric hamstring, unilateral lower body	n/a
3	Clean and derivatives	24%
	Deadlift and variations	15%
	Push press, lunges and variations	9%
	Push up, snatch and derivatives, jerks and variations, squat and variations	6%
	Pull up, mid-thigh pull, hip thrusts and variations, farmers walk, core exercise, calf raise	3%
	Other: bilateral/unilateral hamstring, upper body pull, power lifting, reverse pull, multi-planar lower body, fast bowlers - isometric single leg triple extension	n/a
4	Pull up	15%
	Squat and variations	15%
	Clean and derivatives	9%
	Bench press, deadlift and variations, lunge and variations, plyometrics, jerk and variations	6%
	Landmine press, snatch and derivatives, push press, sled sprints, core exercise, glute ham raise, isometric adductor exercise	3%
	Other: bilateral or unilateral isolated exercise based of previous injury history, upper body push, explosive dynamic training, lower body posterior chain	n/a
5	Bent over row	18%
	Core exercises, farmers walk, pull ups, snatch and derivatives	9%
	Bench press, jerk and derivatives, push press, turkish get-ups	6%
	Clean and derivatives, deadlift and variations, landmine press, leg press, lunge and variations, nordic hamstring curl, plyometrics, push ups, squat and variations	3%
	Other: hamstring ISO variations, muscular isolation training	n/a

Variations and Derivatives were added when multiple types of the same exercise were reported (e.g., Squat, Overhead Squat, Front Squat).

Speed development

Speed development exercises were used by all S&C coaches, an overview of the most common exercises prescribed are presented in Figure 4.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 4.

Speed development exercises strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) prescribe.

Plyometrics

All S&C coaches used plyometric exercises, an overview of the purposes for prescribing these exercises is presented in Figure 5. Other responses included: “Stiffness”, “Used sparingly in our league, and for most players not at all”, “Maximal expressions of the athlete’s strength and power”, and “transfer to cricket skill performance”. The time of year that plyometric exercises were prescribed by S&C coaches, was predominantly all year round (73%), pre-season only (24%), in-season only (15%), off-season only (9%), and at training camps (6%). Whereas plyometric exercises were mostly programed into S&C sessions, before weights (55%), as complex training (52%), on separate days (42%), and after weights (9%). The plyometric exercises prescribed by S&C coaches are presented in Figure 6, and other responses included: “Plyometrics are used, but are not a big part of my program”, “Banded trunk rotational plyometrics”, and “Pogos, sprinting itself, hurdle work, and rhythm hopping”.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 5.

Different purposes for prescribing plyometric exercises and the percentage of strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) who reported each purpose as their basis for using plyometrics.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 6.

Plyometric exercises strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) prescribe.

Flexibility development

Flexibility exercises were used by all coaches, with the most common times for prescription presented in Figure 7. Other responses included: “We have prehab sessions for injury prevention based exercises”, “Mobility drills first and last thing”, “Through Pilates sessions”, “Before training is dynamic and mobility work” and “We have standalone mobility sessions largely based around yoga”. The most reported length of flexibility sessions were: 6–10 min (70%), 11–15 min (55%), 0–5 min (30%), 16–20 min (27%), and 21+ min (15%). Other responses included: “Pilates are up to 60 mins”. The frequency that S&C coaches prescribed different methods of flexibility exercise is presented in Table 3.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 7.

Different times for prescribing flexibility exercises and the percentage of strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) who reported prescribing flexibility exercises at these times.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 3.

Percentage of responses from strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) for the frequency in which different methods of flexibility training are used.

Type of stretch	Commonly	Sometimes	Never
Ballistic	6%	55%	39%
Dynamic	85%	15%	0%
Active	61%	36%	3%
Passive	15%	79%	6%
Static	52%	39%	9%
PNF	9%	79%	12%

PNF: Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.

Physical testing

Physical testing was used by all coaches, and was predominantly conducted: all year round (67%), and during the pre-season (33%), off-season (27%), in-season (24%), and at training camps (15%). Other responses included: “Full battery of testing off-season and pre-season, and individuals monitored in-season for tests specific for their development or injury prevention”, “Many squad members arrive a few days before the league commences, limiting the type and quantity of testing performed, we seldom see players in the off and pre-season”, and “We use different tests at different times of the year/season”. An overview of the most reported physical tests are presented in Figure 8. Other responses included: “Velocity based training”, “Reactive strength index”, “Bowling velocity”, “Movement quality assessment”, “Limited opportunities to test in our league, particularly physically demanding tests”, “Main assessments include body composition, musculoskeletal screening and baseline speed”, “Other tests (strength and cardiovascular endurance) are done with non-selected players”, and “In-season we do a few regular assessments, whereas off-season and pre-season we do a greater range of tests”.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 8.

Different physical tests used by strength and conditioning coaches and the percentage of strength and conditioning coaches (n = 33) who reported using each physical test.

Programming

Five open-ended questions were asked, allowing detailed responses from S&C coaches, which were used to create higher-order themes. The percentage of responses to each theme and exemplar responses are provided in Tables 4 to 8.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 4.

Strength and conditioning coach responses to the biggest issues they face as a strength and conditioning coach.

Rank	Theme	Exemplar responses	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Time/scheduling/fixtures	“Contact time within the cricket season. Condensed playing schedules with little time for any strength and conditioning training” and “Playing schedules are becoming increasingly cramped without sufficient time for proper rest, recovery and preparation. Sometimes, we play 3 games in 7 days with travel and practices scheduled”	45%
2	Training load/periodization	“Managing the training load is difficult as cricket is played all year around” and “The challenge is finding windows of opportunity to reduce strength/power decay. Speed is easier to maintain as it can be built into warm-ups for fielding sessions or on game days”	21%
3	Miscellaneous	“Summers in our league create challenging environmental conditioning in certain locations” and “budgets and politics”	18%
4	Lack of Facilities/equipment/staffing	“One coach writing over a 100 player programs each block” and “Due to extensive travel, we don’t always have access to quality facilities and equipment”	15%
5	Athlete adherence/buy in	“Adherence to training from athletes as they believe cricket is mainly a skill based sport, and strength and conditioning training takes away from skill practice” and “Athlete compliance/consistency”	15%
6	Colleague relationship/opinion differences	“Head coach stigma and pre conceived ideas from their perspective of strength and conditioning” and “Internal opinions leading to misalignment of goals”	15%
7	Remote programming/non-contact delivery	“Remotely programming and delivering programs” and “Coaching and managing athletes remotely”	9%

Some coaches detailed more than one response. Which was further sub-divided amongst the themes created.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 5.

Strength and conditioning coach responses to the unique aspects of their strength and conditioning programs.

Rank	Theme	Exemplar responses	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Nothing/focus on basics	“Nothing ground breaking, application of the fundamentals on a consistent basis” and “No, we do the basics very well, consistently and to a high standard.”	48%
2	Sport specific training	“I deliver a gym-based movement session which mimics cricket actions by driving inter and intra muscular adaptations” and “I try to integrate sessions with the bowling coach, to conduct a joint session combining technical and physical skills for robustness” and “In-season I get as much of our conditioning work through our skill drills, where possible”	21%
3	Miscellaneous	“I let players decide on their program, as I deal with senior players who are mature, so my job is to motivate and guide rather than tell them what to do” and “Integrating internships at various levels of the program”	15%
4	Limited resources/facilities	“Our environment is unique due to having poor facilities and we adapt well due to this” and “We have a very small budget so don’t have access to the equipment and information other teams have. However that gives an advantage as we don’t get lost in the data”	12%
5	Types of exercises prescribed	We use breathing and relaxation techniques, and also natural movement training” and “I may emphasize isometrics more in season than some other strength and conditioning coaches in cricket”	9%
6	Individualization	“Adapt each exercise to what individuals can perform safely, while still developing strength qualities” and “I first strengthen basic movements, then progress individuals according to their training and injury history”	9%
7	Training Load/periodization	“We prioritize recovery and restoration above everything else, to keep players as fresh as possible for competition” and “Making sure the weekly structure is planned well, and our bowling workloads are planned to be higher than general acute-chronic workload ratios to increase robustness”	9%

Some coaches detailed more than one response. Which was further sub-divided amongst the themes created.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 6.

Strength and conditioning coach responses to strategies used to individualize training different positions and athletes.

Rank	Theme	Exemplar responses	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Position specific demands to individualize training	“I reverse engineer from the positional demands. For example, fast bowling is unilateral in nature and has high eccentric/isometric lower limb demands. Whereas, batting is unilateral and bilateral in nature and has more concentric lower limb demands” and “Priorities of each position are: Bowlers - full body strength work with limited hypertrophy, strong aerobic base, low body fat and conditioning via actual bowling drills, Batters – agility sessions (run between wickets), speed 5–20 m, alactic-aerobic conditioning (via shuttle runs), Fielders – shoulder strength/stability sessions, throwing workload management, combine conditioning (speed, agility and quickness) into fielding drills”	61%
2	Screening/wellbeing/testing	“I rely on Physio screening information for each individual to guide me on their needs, together with workload information that I gather on a daily basis” and “Use needs analysis to drive exercise selection - this includes musculoskeletal, performance test data, position & game analysis (e.g., GPS data)”	36%
3	Maturity status/long term athlete development	“Also considering training age and physical competency. Rookies have more generic broad programs until movement proficiency gained” and “Based on biological age and training”	9%
4	Goal setting	“Sessions are individualized based off players and coaches goals” and “Specific work for individuals aligning to their cricket goals”	9%
5	Miscellaneous	“Maybe 1–2 gym exercises but not many, we train all athletes the same way to get them stronger, powerful and fast” and “We group top order batsman and seam bowlers together in order for these athletes to gain the most out of a session”	9%
6	Yes (no elaboration)	N/A	9%

Some coaches detailed more than one response. Which was further sub-divided amongst the themes created.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 7.

Strength and conditioning coach responses to changes or modifications they would make to their strength and conditioning programs given unlimited time and resources.

Rank	Theme	Exemplar responses	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Technological equipment/testing	“Force plates for sensitive strength, rate of force/power testing, GPS for specific load monitoring, heart rate monitoring system for internal load monitoring” and “Better physiological monitoring of training through heart rate and use of force plate/position encoder for power testing”	48%
2	More time/training time with players	“Spend more time with players on improving limitations” and “Players arrive just before the league starts, which is at the end of the international or domestic season, meaning players can arrive physically and mentally fatigued”	24%
3	Improved facilities/equipment/staffing	“I would love to have a back end support team that would assist in collecting, collating all training, playing and performance data” and “Provide greater nutritional support to the players with a dedicated staff member” and “Better coach to athlete ratio, bigger gym space and centralized facilities for physical training and skills”	24%
4	Miscellaneous	“Employ better feedback mechanisms” and “Players conduct some training remotely”	15%
5	Education	“Recruit a lifestyle manager to educate athletes on nutrition and sleep” and “Focus more on athlete education around training, nutrition, sleep and mental skills”	9%
6	Integration of Science/Research	“I would like to strive to Improve the application of science to produce a program for improving performance” and “More accurately align the scientific accuracy of my programs” and “Further research what impacts performance in cricket”	9%

Some coaches detailed more than one response. Which was further sub-divided amongst the themes created.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 8.

Strength and conditioning coach responses to what they believe future trends in strength and conditioning will be.

Rank	Theme	Exemplar responses	Percentage of coaches (n = 33)
1	Miscellaneous	“More strength and conditioning coaches with PhD's, due to feeling this is becoming increasingly required” and “More ownership from athletes, especially with recent COVID-19 restrictions” and “Remote training”	39%
2	Technology	“Technology use, not only as a monitoring tool but as a training tool, virtual reality is one area I believe will advance moving forward” and “Implanted monitoring devices” and “Technology advancement will improve the ability to give quicker instant feedback, leading to greater improvements” and “Technology devices will continue to flood the market, but it’s important to understand what's useful and it should be a small part of programs”	33%
3	Types of exercises prescribed	“Potentiation sessions prior to 20/20 matches, more emphasis on power training in batters like baseball to help with boundary hitting and throwing velocity” and “An increase in the use of isometric training” and “Use of more use high intensity interval training drills, and see the 30–15 intermittent test being used as opposed to the yo-yo”	21%
4	Testing and monitoring	“Workload and wellness monitoring systems and solutions will vastly improve and become a bigger part of cricket high-performance programs” and “The use of digital devices and software to track athlete performance that is accurate”	21%
5	Greater responsibility for strength and conditioning coaches	“Strength and conditioning coaches will need to be more than just a 'gym coach' and will need to contribute more to pitch based work/ sessions/delivery etc” and “I see strength and conditioning coaches controlling more of the program, becoming the leaders in their performance staff, and eventually strength and conditioning and sport coaching roles combining”	12%
6	Prehabilitation/injury reduction	“With evolving load management systems in cricket, strength and conditioning coaches will be able to reduce more players injuries” and “More rehab/injury prevention mechanisms. It is still debatable whether icing and not icing injuries is most effective”	6%
7	Lack of job opportunities/side business	“Lack of job opportunities” and “More strength and conditioning coaches with side businesses”	6%

Some coaches detailed more than one response. Which was further sub-divided amongst the themes created.

Discussion

This is the first study to investigate the practices of S&C coaches in male professional cricket across different countries and leagues. A bachelor’s degree or higher was held by most S&C coaches in this study, and more than reported (80%) in another professional cricket survey. ²³ Furthermore, over half held a Master’s degree and very few held a PhD, similar to previous surveys of S&C coaches in rugby union ³² and across various sports and countries. ²⁴ Almost three-quarters of S&C coaches held an S&C certification, which is higher than reported in professional swimming ³³ (58%), professional rugby union ³² (56%), and Division II American Football ³⁶ (38%). It is recommended that S&C coaches complete academic qualifications (i.e., Bachelor degrees and preferably Master degrees), along with professional qualifications (i.e., S&C accreditations) to provide underpinning theoretical knowledge and practical experience in sports science and S&C. ⁵ Therefore, it is promising to see highly qualified S&C coaches currently working in professional cricket.

Undertaking internships or graduate assistantships to develop S&C knowledge and skills are important. ³⁷ However to be considered for positions, candidates are increasingly required to possess professional certifications. ⁵ In this study most internships were completed before obtaining professional certifications, which is logical to develop self-efficacy, S&C skills, and knowledge before funding a certification. ³⁸ This was the first study to address if S&C coaches also possessed cricket coaching certifications, which almost half did. Responses from open-ended questions (see Table 8) suggest that obtaining cricket coaching certifications and developing cricket-specific knowledge will become increasingly important for S&C coaches in the future. For example, S&C coaches implied they may be required to contribute more broadly to field-based sessions and technical work, and that S&C and sports coaching roles may merge, leading towards a transdisciplinary athlete support team.

Training load was reduced in-season through decreasing the frequency and length of training sessions, and the number of sets per exercise in this study. This is similar to S&C coaches in professional rugby union, who adopted a maintenance approach to ensure players were in optimal condition for competition. ³² Furthermore, S&C coaches predominantly used 3–4 sets of 4–6 reps for strength development in-season and off-season, aligning with research guidelines for strength training load parameters in cricketers.^3,12,13 To determine set loads used within training programs, S&C coaches predominantly used RPE, while other methods such as percentage of repetition maximum methods were used to less extent. The use of RPE and predicted repetition maximum methods are beneficial for developing muscle growth and maximal strength, but there may be small additional gains in muscular strength using a RPE method, ³⁹ aligning with the results from this study.

Periodization strategies were used by almost all S&C coaches in this study, and to a greater extent than S&C coaches in other professional sports, including: ice hockey ²⁹ (91%), rugby union ³² (88%), baseball ³⁰ (86%), basketball ³¹ (85%), and American football ²⁸ (69%). Periodization strategies are beneficial in organizing short and long-term S&C programs, however, constraints in professional sport require S&C coaches to continuously adapt and modify periodized plans. ² This is apparent from some of the reported ‘biggest issues’ faced by S&C coaches being: time, scheduling, fixtures, and training load (see Table 4). Predominantly, S&C coaches prescribed <24 h (same day) (61–79%) between strength, power, and speed development sessions and sports training (see Table 1), similar to S&C coaches in professional rugby union (72–79%). In contrast, 48 h (39–42%) was considered suitable between such sessions and competition, slightly lower than reported in rugby union (47–51%). Although comparisons with prior research and other sports are insightful, the congested playing schedules in some cricket formats creates substantial restrictions for S&C coaches. Such as the difficulty in planning and applying ideal periodized training programs and recovery strategies, which is apparent from open-ended responses in Table 4.

The use of isometric exercises in male professional cricket was considerably higher than reported by S&C coaches working across various sports ²⁴ (73%), potentially suggesting additional sport-specific benefits in cricket. Some S&C coaches suggested isometric exercises can be used throughout the season, will be further integrated in the future, and can help deal with the high isometric demands of fast bowling (see Tables 5, 6, and 8). It has been recommended cricketers perform isometric exercises to resist ineffective trunk extension, flexion, and lateral flexion under loads, particularly when moving at high velocities (e.g., when performing cricket specific skills). ³ Eccentric exercises were also widely used in this study, deviating from a survey on the S&C conditioning practices of sports coaches in sub-elite cricket, which revealed only 18% of practitioners used eccentric exercises. ⁴ The authors of this study suggested this was due to coaches’ lack of experience and qualifications in S&C, while potentially not fully understanding the importance and application of eccentric exercise for performance and injury reduction benefits. ⁴

Olympic weightlifting and associated derivatives were prescribed by most S&C coaches in this study, similar to other professional sports: basketball ³¹ (95%), ice hockey ²⁹ (91%), rugby union ³² (88%), and American football ²⁸ (88%). The most used Olympic weightlifting exercises prescribed were derivatives (see Figure 3), which have been recommended to improve acceleration, speed, and ankle/knee stiffness, ⁴⁰ which are key physical attributes for bowlers. ¹⁵ Conversely, just over one-third of S&C coaches used Olympic weightlifting for speed development (see Figure 4), showing a disparity between the potential benefits and actual usage of Olympic weightlifting in professional cricket.

The squat, deadlift, and associated variations were deemed the most important exercises prescribed by S&C coaches for professional cricketers (see Table 2). This is similar to that reported by S&C coaches in other professional sports: American Football, ²⁸ ice hockey, ²⁹ baseball, ³⁰ basketball, ³¹ rugby union, ³² and swimming. ³³ Using these exercises in a comprehensive S&C program with elite cricketers has demonstrated improvements in various power, speed, strength, agility, and cardiovascular endurance physical tests.^12,13 However, improvements were only seen during the off-season where two sessions were completed per week, but when only one maintenance session per week was conducted in-season, a gradual decline in physical test performance was observed. ¹³ The use of two maintenance sessions in-season was most commonly reported in this study, suggesting S&C coaches in professional cricket are aware of the importance of maintaining a suitable training stimulus to prevent a decline in physical performance.

The most prescribed speed development exercises were plyometrics and maximum speed sprinting. In cricket mean sprint distances for fast bowlers during the run-up is approximately 15.2–17.7 m, ⁴⁰ batters sprint 17.68 m between the wickets, ⁴¹ and cricket fielders sprint 15–18 m on average in the field. ¹⁰ The use of plyometrics may be more applicable to develop short accelerative sprints (i.e., <20 m) that mimic sport-specific distances, as opposed to achieving maximal sprinting velocities that require greater distances. ¹⁹ However, less than half of S&C coaches used sport-specific movements to develop speed. Open-ended responses suggested this is achieved through combining technical and physical skills to apply a sport-specific training stimulus (i.e., distance of sprints) (see Table 5).

Plyometric exercises were mostly prescribed before weights, which is logical given the important requirements of movement quality and explosiveness, which is best achieved when less fatigued (e.g., before heavy weight training). ² The predominant reasons for using plyometrics were for speed development, lower-body power, and injury reduction, and the most prescribed plyometric exercise was multiple hops/lunges. It was surprising the limited prescription of plyometrics for upper-body power and use of upper-body plyometric exercises (see Tables 5 and 6). Particularly given the important injury reduction and performance implications of being able to conduct repetitive upper-body explosive cricket movements (i.e., bowling, batting, and throwing).^3,19,22,40 For example, conducting eight-weeks of explosive upper-body exercises with resistance bands and medicine balls, has shown the potential to significantly improve cricket bowling velocity by an average of 2.64 km/h. ⁴² Plyometric exercises were predominantly prescribed all year round, but extensively focusing on plyometrics for long periods may be inappropriate due to their high intensity. ² However, plyometric exercises can offset performance decrements and improve lower-body power in professional cricketers, when suitably periodized with adequate recovery in a comprehensive S&C program over six months. ¹²

Flexibility exercises were mostly prescribed before practice in this study and used to a lesser extent during this period than S&C coaches in other professional sports: baseball ³⁰ (95%), American football ²⁸ (92%), basketball ³¹ (90%), rugby union ³² (79%), and ice hockey ²⁹ (78%). Dynamic flexibility exercises were the most used, and flexibility sessions were predominantly kept relatively short (i.e., 6–10 mins) in this study. Given the lack of evidence in professional cricket regarding the performance benefits of different warm-ups, it is assumed S&C coaches were adhering to general warm-up principles of a short dynamic stretching routine before training. Although, it has been shown in sub-elite Indian university standard cricketers that conducting a 10 min routine of jogging (5 min) followed by five sets of dynamic (30 sec) and static (30 sec) stretches of the lower-body, significantly improved performance in subsequent flexibility (sit and reach), agility (Illinois agility test) and speed (0–20 m sprint) tests, compared with routine stretching. ⁴³ However, it was unclear from the methodology what specific stretches were conducted in any of the groups. ⁴³

Cardiovascular endurance and body composition were the most common physical tests used in this study. Professional cricketers require high levels of cardiovascular endurance, to cover a large proportion of distances at low intensities during different cricket game formats.^8–11 Furthermore, strong cardiovascular endurance supports the ability to perform repeated bouts of high-intensity aerobic work, which is considered important for professional cricketers. ¹² For example, the ECB have stipulated players should be able to achieve a minimum standard of level 18.7 in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level One. ¹² Regarding body composition, there is limited evidence to suggest that body composition has a positive impact on performance across cricket positions. Although not specifically surveyed in this study, body composition data may provide S&C coaches with useful information to establish whether S&C programs are providing the desired adaptations (e.g., decrease in body fat percentage following a block of conditioning training). A study assessing anthropometric, physical strength, body composition, and performance test profiles of Indian inter-district level male cricketers (n = 271), found lower body fat percentages were significantly correlated with batting specific speed and agility tests, but bodyweight, basal metabolic index, and lean body mass were not. ⁴⁴ However, these results may not be comparable to professional male cricketers given this study was conducted with sub-elite cricketers, with no indication of players receiving any prior S&C training. ⁴⁴

Technology-based equipment was widely used by S&C coaches, and open-ended questions revealed they believed technology will continue to evolve and be important for S&C practices in the future (see Table 8). Speed gates were the most popular equipment used, coinciding with the common prescription of maximum speed running for speed development. Therefore, it is assumed regular speed assessments are used to determine whether S&C programs have been effective in improving acceleration and speed, which are key physical attributes for cricket performance.^8–11,15,41 Athlete wellbeing was monitored by most S&C coaches in this study, who predominantly used mobile device questionnaires to obtain this information. Using subjective measures to monitor athlete wellbeing is valid, reliable, and sensitive to acute and chronic training loads. ⁴⁵ Furthermore, the information provided can cover a range of areas including: stress, fatigue, recovery, and health, which assists S&C coaches in making informed decisions on their interactions with players, and modifications to S&C programs. ⁴⁵

Practical application

The data presented in this study provides a useful resource for S&C coaches working in professional cricket. Results suggest that S&C coaches should implement fundamental S&C principles (i.e., periodization, physical testing) and exercises (i.e., squat, deadlift). However, S&C coaches should be conscious of staying up-to-date with current developments in S&C. For example, the continued integration and development of technology to monitor, test and evaluate player’s physical and sports performance. This is important given the growing responsibility placed on S&C coaches, and their required ability to interpret, disseminate, and apply collected data. Therefore, S&C coaches are encouraged to undertake academic, professional, and sport-specific qualifications, to help develop key knowledge and skills, while remaining abreast of research-informed developments in S&C and cricket.

Conclusion

This study provides original evidence on the contemporary S&C practices of S&C coaches working in male professional cricket. Similarities were observed with S&C coaches in other professional sports, such as: reducing S&C training loads in-season, the common use of Olympic weightlifting, and squats and deadlifts being the most important strength training exercises. Whereas, differences observed specific to cricket compared to other professional sports were: extensive prescription of isometric exercises, greater utilization of periodization strategies, and less use of flexibility exercises before practice. The information presented is valuable for those pursuing or currently working as an S&C coach in professional cricket to align, compare and explain their practices. Furthermore, will provide insight for the wider athlete support team (e.g., sports coaches and physiotherapists) on the practices of S&C coaches. The knowledge gained from this study can inform future research in developing guidelines on effective S&C practices in cricket.

Limitations

Although this study received responses from S&C coaches across seven countries, 63% were currently working in England and South Africa, therefore results may be more attributable to these countries. Furthermore, this study provides the opinions and practices of S&C coaches from select countries and leagues, which may not be representative of all S&C coaches working in professional cricket. Lastly, the required number of questionnaires for valid analysis was not determined before data collection, it was aimed to obtain as many responses as possible within this purposive sample of S&C coaches.

Supplemental Material