Positive development of young futsal players is influenced by the coach's method and leadership profile

Abstract

The objective of the current study was to investigate the influence of the teaching methods and the leadership profile of the coach in relation to the positive development of young futsal practitioners. In total, 541 Brazilian adolescents (13.86 ± 1.61 years) and 34 Brazilian coaches (45.58 ± 5.81 years), from a public sports program in 29 public schools in the city of Curitiba, in the state of Paraná, participated in the study. Ordinal logistic regression was used to verify the independent associations between the variables sex, category, trainer methodology, and athletes' perception with the tertiles of the scores of each characteristic of positive development of young people. Odds ratios (CR) were obtained with a 95% confidence interval (95% CI) adopting p < 0.05. Small sized games were positively associated with goal setting (OR = 1.35; 95% CI = 1.05–1.74). Positive associations were also found between athletes' perceptions of the coaches' leadership profile with personal and social skills (instructor, democratic behavior), cognitive skills (instructor, democratic behavior and social support), goal setting (instructor, democratic behavior and social support), and initiative (instructor). A longer time spent in the program demonstrated significant correlations with personal and social skills, goal setting, and initiative. Girls presented significantly higher scores than boys regarding goal setting and initiative. For the program evaluated, the results suggest the coaches choose small sized games, combined with a democratic, affective, and accurate leadership profile in teaching instructions.

Keywords

Football,small-sided games,social skills,teaching methods,youth sport

Introduction

In the 1970's and 80's, studies of young people in sports focused on practice and lacked theoretical or scientific rigor.¹ Since then, research related to these variables has intensified and become more qualified.² Sport gives young people a unique context for social interaction, which can enhance various human development indicators.^1,2 Future personal and social problems (school dropout, substance abuse harmful to health), can be prevented by including young people in well-structured and carefully constructed sports environments.³ Faced with the instabilities caused by adolescence, sport can be a powerful tool for psychosocial development.⁴ The deep social and emotional interactions generated, probably, promote the accumulation of life skills.⁵

The review of qualitative studies, proposed by Holt et al. (2017), indicates an important theoretical framework for future studies related to positive youth development (PYD) through sport. The theoretical framework points out and supports two paths aimed at research on PYD. The explicit path encourages the understanding of sport as an environment for the development of life skills for young practitioners. The implicit path suggests the use of PYD in the “regular daily interactions” of teachers and coaches involved in sports contexts.⁶

The quality of the process of involvement, participation, and positive development of young people, according to Côté and Hancock⁷ is, fundamentally, passed on through an adaptation of the principles of systematization and pedagogical organization of sports environments. The influence of adults (coaches, teachers) in the process of planning and pedagogical action directly affect the context.¹ Positive educational environments can have a high impact on empathy, inclusion, and meaningful peer relationships, both on and off the playing court.⁸

According to the history and evolution of the pedagogical means of teaching team sports, basically two currents can be identified that guide the processes: the traditional/technicist, centered on the teacher, and the active approach, based on games, centered on the student^8,9

The traditional/technical approach is centered on the coach's beliefs and experiences and defends the assumption that learning isolated skills causes practitioners to automate and replicate them in the context of the full game. It is believed that the sum of individual performances will lead to improvement in collective performance.^10,11

In Game-Based Approaches (GBAs), the pattern of traditional and linear education is replaced by a non-linear pedagogical proposal that takes into account the acquisition of multiple skills, developed in authentic and contextualized environments. GBAs propose self-organizing environments, encouraging game reading, decision making, problem solving, and teamwork. These approaches, instead of stereotyping movements, encourage practitioners to explore greater degrees of freedom in performing sports gestures with and without the ball.^8,12–14

Together with the pedagogical structure, the leadership profile of the coach is another fundamental aspect that must be taken into account in the training of young people.^15,16 The interactions promoted between the young athletes and also between the coach and the athletes are quite complex. The leadership characteristics of the coach can cause positive or negative effects on the psychosocial development of the practitioners.³ Coaches who share the leadership with young athletes, promote a greater sense of inclusion and participation; cohesive teams have leaders distributed among their members¹⁷

Despite the increase in studies, there are clear gaps in the published scientific documents, specifically, little is known about the effects of coaches' pedagogical and psychological behavior and also about the positive relationships that develop between coaches and athletes.^2,5,18 Other issues related to the positive development of young sportspeople and which, according to MacDonald et al.³ should be investigated are age differences, time of experience in sports, and differences between male and female players.

In Brazil, sports programs aimed at young people have grown a lot in the last decade.¹⁹ In the state of Paraná, there is an after school sports program, called “Specialized Sports Training Classes” (SSTC). In this program, physical education teachers from the public school system can allocate 20% of their weekly workload to dedicate themselves to sports training for young people. The program is educational and aims to increase the length of stay in school and the integral training of young people, however, schools registered with the SSTC must participate in the School Games of Paraná.²⁰

To date, no studies have been performed to identify the teaching methods and leadership profile of teachers/coaches and their effects on the perceptions of positive experiences of young futsal players involved in the SSTC program. Futsal is a very popular and growing sport in Brazil. As a reduced version of field football, futsal fits perfectly into small urban spaces and is becoming increasingly sought by children and adolescents.^21,22 As in field football, futsal requires practitioners to be active and autonomous. Due to the unpredictable environment, futsal players should be encouraged to explore the context and find individual and collective responses to solve game problems.^23,24

Therefore, the present study seeks to investigate the influence of the methods and leadership profile of the coach in relation to the positive development of young people of different categories and sexes, futsal practitioners. Our hypothesis was that the teaching methods and leadership profiles of the coach influence the positive development of the practitioners, and coach who use approaches based on small games and who have a democratic, affective, and encouraging profile promote an increase in the positive development of teenagers.

Methods

Participants

A total of 541 adolescents, futsal practitioners in a training program in the evening participated in the study, from state public schools, in the city of Curitiba, in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Of the total participants, 444 were male (82.07%). Participants ranged from 10 to 17 years of age, with a mean of 13.86 ± 1.61 years, and a mean training experience time of 2.97 ± 2.80 years. In addition, 34 coaches participated, 25 of whom were male (73.53%). The coaches had a mean age of 45.58 ± 5.81 years and a mean performance time as coaches of 9.01 ± 7.24.

The sports program in after school hours is called Specialized Sports Training Classes (SSTC). The main objective of the SSTC is to increase the length of time spent in school, aiming at increasing the learning opportunities and comprehensive training of young people enrolled in institutions of the state public school system in the State of Paraná-BR. The program presents an educational sport proposal, where training and competition are means for young people to develop in an integral way. Schools included in the program are required to participate in the Paraná School Games, category B (10–14 years of age) and/or category A (15–17 years age). Of the total number of participating athletes, 357 belonged to category B (65.99%). The mean training experience in category A was 4.03 ± 3.25 years and in category B was 2.43 ± 2.36 years.

The participants described above represent the entire population of the SSTC program in futsal in the city of Curitiba-PR. Students participating in the program underwent 2 2-hour training sessions twice a week during the 2018 school year.

Measures

Teaching methods

A model was used to characterize and classify learning tasks in team sports (Ticó, 2002). In Brazil, this model has been used in case studies.^25,26 Training sessions are filmed, after which the recordings are watched by specialists who classify the exercises by learning tasks. The classification is quantified by time in minutes and as a percentage of the total training time. The model presents the following classifications of tasks: (I) analytical tasks (decomposition of the formal game into technical elements – skills without opposition, combination of skills without opposition); (II) small sized games tasks (decomposition of the formal game into small games with space restrictions, number of players and rules – 3 attackers versus 1 defender 3 vs.1, 2 vs. 1, 2 vs. 2, 3 vs. 2, 3 vs. 3 etc.); (III) global tasks (formal game – use of the formal game, for example: futsal 5 forwards versus 5 defenders 5 vs. 5). For the present article, due to the number of teams and coaches, the instrument was adapted to a classificatory question, applied transversally. Each of the coaches classified the learning tasks in relation to their preference for application in training. The instrument showed an internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.63.

Leadership profile

The Leadership Scale of Sports (LSS) developed by Chelladurai and Saleh²⁷ was used. The version applied was validated by Rodrigues²⁸ to the Brazilian reality. The LSS has three versions (coach's self-perception, athlete's perception, and athlete's preference). For the present study, the athlete's perception version was used on which the athletes answered questions about the leadership behavior exhibited by their coach. For example, “My coach asks athletes' opinions on important training issues”. The scale consists of 40 items, comprising the 5 dimensions of the instrument (training and instruction – leaders who seek to improve athletes' performance by giving instructions on skills, techniques and strategies; democratic behavior – leaders who allow athletes to participate in decisions about group goals, training methods, tactics and game strategies; autocratic behavior – leaders who emphasize personal authority and decision making, regardless of the athletes opinion; social support – leaders who show concern for well-being and seek to establish an affectionate relationship with athletes; positive feedback – leaders who recognize and value the performance in the sports context). The responses to scale items are indicated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Occasionally, 4 = Often, 5 = Always). To test, validate, and guarantee the reliability of the LSS data in the Brazilian reality²⁸ exploratory factor analysis was used, which indicated a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkim coefficient = 0.88, and verification of internal consistency, which indicated a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient: 0.68 (democratic behavior), 0.69 (autocratic behavior), 0.71 (social support), 0.71 (positive feedback), 0.87 (training and instruction) .

Positive youth development

The Portuguese version of the Youth Experience Survey for Sport (YES-S) was used, validated for the Brazilian reality (Rigoni, 2014). The YES-S instrument contains 37 items in its original proposal, with 27 evaluating positive experiences and 10 evaluating negative experiences.³ In the process of validating the original scale for Brazilian reality, several items that evaluate positive experiences and all items that evaluate negative experiences were shown not to be reliable. The Brazilian version of the YES-S was validated with 18 items, considered reliable, and which includes only the 4 positive dimensions of the original scale: personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting and initiative. The following are example of items (personal and social skills) “I learned how my emotions and attitudes affect others in the group”; (cognitive skills) “This activity increased my intention to stay in school”; (goal setting) “I set goals for myself in this activity”; (initiative) “I learned to focus my attention”. The answers to the YES-S items are indicated on a four-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 2 = a little, 3 = more or less, 4 = definitely yes). The validation results for the instrument for Brazilian reality showed acceptable indices for: content validity (Content Validity Coefficient-CVC > 0.8; kappa = 0.8); internal consistency (α > 0.70); temporal stability (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient-ICC> 0.60); cross-cultural equivalence (ICC> 0.60); and construct validity (Quality Adjustment indices:X²/gl = 2.366; Goodness of Fit Index = 0.955; Comparative Fit Index = 0.915; Parsimony Comparative Fit Index = 0.771; Parsimony Goodness of Fit Index = 0.721; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.043; p = 0.959).

Procedures

Each of the 29 schools linked to the SSTC program was contacted in the first half of 2018. All principals from registered schools agreed to participate in the survey. Through the agreement of the schools and the prior approval of the Paraná State Department of Education, the study was submitted to the Ethics Committee, from the health sciences sector, of the Federal University of Paraná and approved under protocol number 2.772.574.

In the second half of 2018, the collection procedures were initiated in schools, respecting the following order: (a) one week before the collection, the researchers went to the schools and explained the objectives of the study to the coaches and athletes; (b) the terms of and free and informed consent and assent were given to the athletes; (c) the free and informed consent form was also given to the coaches; (d) the following week, and at a time previously defined with the coaches, the terms of consent and assent were collected; (e) the athletes received a booklet containing the LSS questionnaires, version of leadership perception, and the YES-S; (f) the coaches received a booklet containing the questionnaire for classifying learning tasks in team sports; (g) verbal instructions were given to participants on how to correctly complete the questionnaires; (h) the participants were told that their answers should be based on the experiences obtained in the SSTC program (i) the anonymous questionnaires were answered by the athletes in a quiet room; (j) the coaches, also anonymously, responded to the survey in a separate room; (k) the questionnaires took approximately 20 minutes to complete; (l) the answered questionnaires were collected and sealed for later tabulation and analysis.

Data analysis

Measures of central tendency, dispersion, and absolute and relative frequency were used to describe the sample. Ordinal logistic regression models were used to verify the independent associations between the variables sex, category, trainer methodology, and athletes' perception of leadership with the tertiles of the scores of each positive development characteristic of the young participants. Odds ratios (CR) were obtained with a 95% confidence interval (95% CI). The variables were initially inserted by forced entry in each association model and were removed in the case of p > 0.20. The robust error model by clusters was used in order to minimize the bias given by the use of sampling in clusters (schools). The assumption of proportionality of the odds ratios was tested using the Brant test and none of the variables violated this assumption. The level of significance adopted was p < 0.05 and all analyzes were performed using the software STATA 14.1 MP.

Results

The present study obtained valid data from 541 athletes and 34 coaches, participants in an after school sports program in Curitiba-PR.

Table 1 presents the descriptive data of the studied variables. Regarding the positive development of adolescents, the mean scores were 2.84 ±.87 for cognitive skills and 3.28 ± .96 for initiative. Regarding the athletes' perceptions of the leadership characteristics of their coaches, the mean scores were 2.45 ± .90 for autocratic behavior and 3.85 ± .84 for the instructor aspects.

Table 1.

Mean and standard deviation of the continuous variables studied in athletes from Curitiba, Brazil (n = 541).

	Overall s(n = 541)	Sex		Category
	Overall s(n = 541)	Boys (n = 444)	Girls s (n = 97)	A s (n = 184)	B s (n = 357)
	Mean ± SD	Mean ± SD	Mean ± SD	Mean ± SD	Mean ± SD
Age (yrs)	13.86 ± 1.61	13.83 ± 1.63	14.01 ± 1.53	15.67 ± .70	12.93 ± 1.07
Personal and social skills	2.97 ± .88	2.89 ± .92	3.32 ± .48	3.11 ± .88	2.89 ± .87
Cognitive skills	2.84 ± .87	2.79 ± .91	3.06 ± .59	2.92 ± .86	2.80 ± .87
Goal setting	3.04 ± .94	2.95 ± .98	3.45 ± .63	3.19 ± .92	2.96 ± .95
Initiative	3.28 ± .96	3.20 ± 1.00	3.66 ± .60	3.44 ± .90	3.20 ± .98
Athlete perception
Instructor aspects	3.85 ± .84	3.76 ± .86	4.24 ± .61	3.82 ± .96	3.86 ± .78
Democratic behavior	3.11 ± .80	3.09 ± .82	3.21 ± .38	3.21 ± .86	3.06 ± .77
Autocratic behavior	2.45 ± .90	2.52 ± .90	2.13 ± .86	2.42 ± .99	2.47 ± .86
Social support	3.29 ± .86	3.22 ± .97	3.62 ± .76	3.39 ± .94	3.24 ± .82
Positive feedback	3.84 ± .94	3.76 ± .98	4.22 ± .63	3.92 ± 1.00	3.80 ± .91

SD: standard deviation.

In total, 34 coaches (45.58 ± 5.81 y.o. – 73.5% [n = 25] male) answered the closed and classificatory question about the tasks of learning in futsal. The majority of coaches had a preference for analytical tasks (41.2%), followed by global tasks (32.3%), and small sized game tasks (26.5%).

Table 2 presents factors associated with the positive development of athletes. Regarding personal and social skills, category A athletes (OR = 1.80; 95% CI = 1.22–2.65), and the athletes with the greatest perception of leadership by coaches in terms of instructor aspects (OR = 1.86; 95% CI = 1.31–2.63) and democratic behavior (OR =1.58; 95% CI = 1.16–2.17) presented higher scores in this condition of development.

Table 2.

Odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) for factors associated with the development of adolescent athletes in Curitiba, Brazil. (n = 541).

	Personal and social skills		Cognitive skills		Goal setting		Initiative
	OR (95% CI)	p	OR (95% CI)	p	OR (95% CI)	p	OR (95% CI)	p
Sex
Boys	1	–	–		1		1
Girls	1.55 (.98–2.45)	.058	–		1.62 (1.10–2.39)	.014	2.31 (1.37–3.90)	.002
Category
B	1		1		1		1
A	1.80 (1.22–2.65)	.003	1.34 (.87–2.07)	.183	1.78 (1.11–2.84)	.016	1.58 (1.01–2.46)	.042
Coach methodology
Global or analytic	–		1		1		1
Small sized games	–		1.36 (.91–2.02)	.126	1.35 (1.05–1.74)	.019	1.27 (.90–1.79)	.176
Athlete perception
Instructor aspects	1.86 (1.31–2.63)	.001	1.76 (1.31–2.37)	<.001	2.34 (1.67–3.27)	<.001	3.09 (2.21–4.33)	<.001
Democratic behavior	1.58 (1.16–2.17)	.004	1.39 (1.07–1.80)	.012	1.48 (1.10–1.97)	.008	–
Autocratic behavior	–		–		.74 (.63–.88)	<.001	–
Social support	1.32 (.96–1.81)	.090	1.53 (1.16–2.01)	.002	1.46 (1.13–1.86)	.003	1.24 (.93–1.65)	.137
Positive feedback	1.29 (.88–1.89)	.181	.80 (.60–1.07)	.138	–		–

Note: Results obtained through ordinal regression with clustered robust error control. Variables with p <.20 were kept in the model.Bold numbers identify significance levels of p <.05.

For cognitive skills, athletes with a greater perception of leadership by coaches in terms of instructor aspects (OR = 1.76; 95% CI = 1.31–2.37), democratic behavior (OR = 1.39; 95% CI = 1.07–1.80), and social support (OR = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.16–2.01) presented higher scores in this condition of development.

Girls (OR = 1.62; 95% CI = 1.10–2.39), category A athletes (OR = 1.77; 95% CI = 1.11–2.84), athletes with a higher perception of leadership by coaches in terms of instructor aspects (OR = 2.34; 95% CI = 1.67–3.27), democratic behavior (OR =1.48; 95% CI = 1.10–1.97), social support (OR = 1.46; 95% CI = 1.13–1.86), and led by coaches who preferred to use small sized games (OR = 1.35; 95% CI = 1.05–1.74) higher scores in the condition of goal setting. On the other hand, the perception of athletes of coaches with autocratic behavior (OR=.74; 95% CI = .63–.88) was inversely associated with higher goal-setting scores.

Girls (OR = 2.31; 95% CI = 1.37–3.90), category A athletes (OR = 1.58; 95% CI = 1.01–2.46), and athletes with a higher perception of leadership by coaches in the instructor aspects (OR = 3.09; 95% CI = 2.21–4.33) were more likely to present higher initiative scores.

Discussion

The current study sought to investigate the influence of the coach's methods and leadership profile in relation to the positive development of young people of different categories and sexes, futsal practitioners participating in an after school sports program. The results will be discussed following the 4 dimensions of the study dependent variable: personal and social skills, cognitive skills, goal setting, and initiative

Personal and social skills

Personal and social skills, represent, in personal terms, the ability to deal with ones emotions and be able to give and receive feedback from others; the social aspect includes the ability to make friends, work as a team, and share responsibilities.³ The results of the current study show that for young people, having a longer time in the program, who perceive their coaches as democratic leaders, and as quite committed to teaching and instruction, reflect in significant personal and social development indices.

Walsh et al.,²⁹ in a study carried out in basketball, indicate that the length of stay of young people in a sports program is essential for the cultivation of human virtues and also for the positive impacts of practical experience to occur. The study by Tobar,³⁰ conducted with young soccer players, highlights the fact that a coach who knows the sport deeply and who provides precise instructions is well accepted by the group of practitioners. Tobar³⁰ and Farias, Mesquita,³¹ point out that young athletes, practitioners of team sports, prefer the democratic leadership profile over the autocratic leadership.

Coaches with democratic behavior foster stronger bonds and a sense of belonging among group members. Bruner et al. (2017), indicate that environments where young people who practice collective sports find a sense of belonging, are associated with greater personal and social development. According to Cronin, Allen,⁵ Cronin and Allen,³² democratic adult leaders who provide support for the autonomy of young sportspeople are significantly associated with favoring and developing life skills such as communication and interpersonal relationships. Vella, Oades,² in a study conducted with soccer players, indicate that the perceived quality of the coach-athlete relationship is associated with the development of social skills of young athletes.

When young people remain in sports programs for longer and have access to coaches who combine their leadership profile with the interests of those they lead, the results are expressive in the positive development of personal and social skills.

Cognitive skills

Cognitive skills, according to MacDonald et al.,³ are related to the fact that sport for young people can arouse curiosity, creativity, a greater interest in staying in school and obtaining better academic performance. The results of the current study demonstrate that a democratic leadership profile, affective and committed to teaching, showed the best results in relation to cognitive development.

The studies of Vella, Oades¹⁵ and Vella, Oades,² conducted with adolescent soccer players, showed that the affective coach profile that takes into account the individual needs of each player is strongly associated with the cognitive development of young practitioners. Solstad, van Hoye³³ and Calvo, Miguel³⁴ indicate that in sporting contexts of young athletes, practitioners of team sports, coaches should provide constant support for autonomy, enabling the resolution of problems and decision making by practitioners. Coaches who are precise in their instructions, create positive and encouraging environments and listen to the opinions of young people, both in training and in competitions are more likely to develop positive cognitive skills through sport. Ortega Vila, Giménez Fuentes-Guerra,³⁵ in a study conducted in Basketball, recommends that young people should be invited to give opinions and propose alterations in activities, with a view to developing values and improving individual and team conduct.

Young people involved in sporting contexts should be seen as active subjects, capable of modifying themselves and positively modifying the environment in which they are included. Therefore, a coach who is democratic, affective, and precise in teaching instructions ends up becoming a facilitator for significant alterations in the cognitive skills of adolescents.

Contrary to the hypothesis of the present study, no significant association was found between the option for small sized games and cognitive skills. This may have occurred because the research participants are mostly beginners and participate in competitions only at the school level. Studies suggest that in certain contexts, the analytical method should be used, Lopes, Magalhães,³⁶ indicate that the lack of skill associated with non-automated movements of beginning volleyball players maximizes the increase in the delay of information processing, influencing negatively the decision making. The study by Bruce, Farrow,³⁷ highlights the fact that the beginner player and with low level of skill, may even perceive the correct decision, but does not put it into practice because he/she is not confident in performing the most appropriate technical gesture at the moment.

Although some studies defend the use of analytical methods in some contexts, Práxedes, Moreno³⁸ indicate that the manipulation of numerical superiorities is an important resource to improve the technical movements and decision making of young soccer players, with medium and low level of skills. When emphasizing the superiority of the attackers over the defenders, for example (3 vs. 1) or (4 vs. 2), the complexity of the game is reduced, increasing the time of decision making and, consequently, it is possible to improve the technical performance of beginning players with little skill. Games in numerical equality (3 vs. 3; 4 vs. 4; 5 vs. 5) seem to be very complex for young players with medium and low skill level.

Goal setting

Goal setting, according to MacDonald, Côté,³ is related to the ability to define and achieve objectives. Sport is a conducive environment for setting goals, which is a fundamental skill for young individuals to develop.

The results of the current study confirm the fact that a longer time spent in sports programs generates greater positive impacts,^19,29 in this case, category A athletes presented significant results in terms of setting and achieving goals. The results also point out significant correlations of this dimension with the prioritization of small sized games and a common profile which is democratic, affective, and with precise instructions. In small sized games, instead of receiving ready responses from the coach, it is the players who take responsibility for solving the problems of the proposed game.^18,39 The study of Bengoechea, Wilson,⁴⁰ carried out with individual and collective sports practitioners, indicates that the ideal sports environment for young people should be authentic and allow the athlete to practice skills in situations similar to those where they will need to use them. The study of Cronin and Allen,³² with young athletes from different collective modalities, indicates that creating a training climate that enables decision making and constant positive feedback is correlated with the development of the abilities to think for oneself and establish goals. Bruner, Balish,⁴ confirm the significant development of the domain in question through a training environment that proposes a sense of belonging and strong affective bonds between team members.

The results of goal setting show the importance of associating the teaching method with the coach's leadership profile. If the coach has a democratic leadership e.g., he/she can use the small sized games, once the center of the process is the practitioner.

The training structures are built according to the needs and level of sports development of young people. Such a methodological approach requires a democratic, sociable, and motivating behavior from the coach.^18,39 This psycho-pedagogical combination generates rapprochement and communication, favoring positive interpersonal relationships. The training context provided by the coach, provides young people with self-organization, problem-solving, and decision making.⁴¹

The results also show that girls are more likely to develop the ability to set goals than boys. Our results differ from those in the study of Vella, Oades,² who found no differences in this domain in relation to boys and girls, soccer players, who were influenced by coaches with a positive and motivating leadership profile. However, the current study made comparisons considering, in addition to the psychological profile, the pedagogical profile of the coach, reinforcing the observed differences between boys and girls.

Our results indicate that the autocratic profile of the coach inhibits the establishment of goals by adolescents. Through an autocratic leadership profile, the coach guides athletes on “how to do” and “when to do”, and the intrinsic riches of team sports, autonomy, creativity, teamwork, decision making, and problem solving, are negated.⁴¹

Initiative

The initiative dimension is linked to effort and attention, factors that involve the individual's intrinsic motivation.³ The main result in this dimension is that category A athletes, female athletes and athletes who perceive their coach’s commitment to technical and tactical instructions, present higher initiative indices. These results confirm the fact that coaches who have great knowledge of the sport, are able to provide precise instructions at the right time.³⁰ These characteristics, extrinsic to the young practitioner, increase their focus of attention and their intrinsic motivation.^30,42

The study of Vella, Oades,² found positive associations between the profile of the coach committed to the individual performance of each young person with the development of initiative, but found no differences when comparing male and female athletes. The study of Wałach-Biśta,⁴³ indicates that young and adult female athletes expect more instruction from coaches than male athletes. Bortoli et al. (2012), indicate that the instructions that reinforce the perceived competence of young soccer athletes are strongly associated with the development of their motivation. It is important to highlight that the instructions should be centered on the learning interests of the young athlete and not on the coach's beliefs. All instructions should be provided in authentic contexts and in order to encourage the autonomy of the adolescents.³¹

Finally, the results of the current study confirm the fact that longer participation in the sports program, combined with a profile of coaches committed to teaching is associated with the development of the initiative of the adolescents involved.

Conclusion

In the evaluated program, the results show the predominance of traditional coaches, where the majority pointed out analytical and global methods as priorities in their pedagogical actions. The traditional team sports training approach considers that learning isolated skills causes the practitioner to automate and replicate them in the context of formal play. The sum of individual performances generates an improvement in collective performance.^10,11 The traditional coach places himself at the center of the process and takes on an autocratic leadership profile. The trainings are planned according to your beliefs, in this case, the coach makes the decisions, regardless of the opinion and interests of the athletes. It is important to note that this approach, according to Light and Harvey,⁸ break with self-discovery, learning to learn, problem solving, and decision making.

We understand that if the program was guided by an active approach, based on small sized games and by a democratic and motivating leadership profile, the results would be more expressive in relation to all the evaluated dimensions of positive development. Unfortunately, the leadership profiles aligned with the pedagogical evidence have difficulties to assert themselves in youth sports contexts. Many coaches consider losing credibility and feel uncomfortable when they adopt democratic stances, where decision making is shared and carried out together.¹²

The profile of a coach who provides instructions, but who is also democratic and affective, seems to be the combination best associated with the positive development of young people in the program in question. The instructor profile showed significant correlations with all domains of positive development. We conclude that due to the fact that the group is formed, in its majority, by beginner players, who participate in competitions at school level, the presence of a coach who, at the right time, acts as an instructor, is necessary.

Notably, the length of stay in the program showed significant effects in almost all dimensions of positive development tested. Through an appropriate psycho-pedagogical profile, the adult leadership exercised by the coach can add value to the length of stay and participation of adolescents in sports programs. Finally, girls presented significantly higher scores than boys in setting goals and showing initiative. This result legitimizes the importance of sports practices for young women and ratifies sport as a unique social context with numerous possibilities for the inclusion and human development of young people.

The present study presents some limitations that need to be pointed out. The cross-sectional design does not allow establishment of causality between variables. An experimental follow-up study could better assess how human development indicators evolve, or not, over time. There is always concern with self-reported data, as they can mask the veracity of the information, therefore, observational research methods could compose and better validate the results. Finally, the exclusion of the negative dimension from the Brazilian version of the YES-S (Rigoni, 2014) also represents an important limitation of this study.

Footnotes

Authors’ contributions

LA and VO conceived and designed research. GV and RB conduced search strategy. ES assisted in writing.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Eduardo Mendonça Scheeren

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