Exploring coaching leadership behaviors among top-division university badminton teams in Taiwan: A “Five Cardinal Relationships” (Wulun) perspective

Wulun as an analytical concept

Hofstede and Bond ⁶ believe that culture invisibly penetrates people's lives and then forms psychological norms that people can follow in specific situations to indicate reasonable social behavior. Chinese societies in Asia are deeply influenced by Confucian culture. ⁷ Confucianism entails that at birth, everyone becomes enmeshed in a network of role-defined relationships—the “Five Cardinal Relationships” (Wulun); accordingly, this concept represents the relationships inherent in Chinese society and families, including the ruler–subject, parent–offspring, husband–wife, sibling–sibling, and friend–friend relationships. ⁸ The attitudes and behaviors of Taiwanese people are influenced by these relationships. ⁹ With the sole exception of the friend–friend connection, these connections (ruler–subject, parent–offspring, sibling–sibling, and husband–wife) are all superior–subordinate relationships; superiority symbolizes authority, which requires respect and obedience from the subordinate party. ⁸

In Chinese culture, which is collectivist, people value interdependence, maintain interpersonal harmony, and shape their behavior based on a high level of concern for their relationships with others or others’ expectations. ¹⁰ Due to the influence of panfamilialization, Chinese people generalize the ethical relationships and role obligations that apply within the family to organizations outside the family. ¹¹ Moreover, obligations outside the family relationship are becoming increasingly important. When engaging with relations outside the family, appropriate behaviors must be exhibited according to the status of one's relationship with the other if the moral requirements of Wulun are to be met. ¹² The dual relationships associated with each role imply a salient moral and ethical spirit as well as the concept of ritual, for example, the norm of duty. ¹³ Chinese ritual, which attaches importance to differences in status and rational norms, is the foundation of interethnic relations and the basis for moral practice; it also plays a positive role in maintaining social stability and development. ¹⁴

Using concepts based on Wulun, the current study examined relationships between coaching styles and players’ behaviors in the context of the sport of badminton. The following provides a brief discussion of three key concepts, namely, the ruler–subject, parent–offspring, and sibling–sibling relationships, that have been analyzed in the literature.

Ruler–subject

The ruler–subject relationship delineates the respective rights of ancient kings and their subjects based on their given titles as well as the simultaneous obligation to abide by the stipulations of that relationship. ¹⁵ Organizations governed by political powers necessarily operate in terms of a stratified framework, and the reason for this framework is the aim of ensuring domination. ¹⁶ Due to the long evolution of Chinese society, the notion of loyalty toward the emperor has been transformed into loyalty toward one's superior or direct supervisor. When a subordinate is loyal to his or her superiors, the attitudes and thoughts of this pair tend to converge, becoming highly unified. ¹⁷ Kao et al. ¹⁸ have noted that coaching leadership behaviors tend to comply with the requirements of school superiors to meet organizational needs and adapt to changing circumstances. In this study, the personnel authority of the coach rests with the school supervisor; thus, the subjects of ruler–subject relationship are set as the school supervisor and coach.

Parent–offspring

Traditionally, the father–son connection (the parent–offspring relationship) is considered to be much more important than the other four connections, thus highlighting the fact that the father exerts greater dominion over his children and other family members and enjoys absolute authority. ¹⁹ In Eastern societies, the notion of patriarchy emphasizes the responsibility of subordinates to obey and the authority of superiors to define the rights and obligations of their subordinates and to require compliance. When superiors establish their legitimacy with respect to controlling their subordinates, the obligation to obey is incurred by the latter, who then put forth their best efforts to meet paternalistic expectations. ²⁰ As time progressed, this emphasis on blood relations within families with respect to the father–son connection was replaced by the application of the same relational duties to organizations outside the family and toward people with whom one has no blood relationship. ²¹

In a sporting context, one of the most critical relationships in which young athletes participate is their relationship with their coach, which contributes to their development as athletes.^22,23 Sports teams are similar to large families, with coaches playing a parental role, reprimanding players when they break rules, and teaching players to correct their misdeeds. ¹⁹ Players uphold the values of respect and obedience toward coaches, and they also regard male coaches as fathers, which deeply influences their daily behavior and attitude toward life. Therefore, this study defines the relationship between father and son as the relationship between coach and player.

Sibling–sibling

After parents give birth to multiple children, relationships naturally emerge among brothers and sisters (the sibling–sibling relationship). ²⁴ Confucianism claims that hierarchy is the means to attain social harmony. The household hierarchy prescribes that juniors must respect and obey their seniors. In return, these seniors have to care for and protect their juniors. Such a value system establishes interconnections among roles. ²⁵ As society has changed, the notion of the brotherly connection has expanded well beyond the context of households to encompass one's, social groups. ²⁶ For example, in an enterprise, when a new employee has a problem, his or her senior will politely use his or her experience to provide advice, shape the question, and thus form a counseling relationship.

This model is called the system of seniors and juniors. ²⁷ Under this system, seniors have the responsibility to care for juniors; juniors have the obligation to obey seniors. Such groups can be seen everywhere in Taiwan. ²⁸ On sport teams, to provide a highly typical description of this model in practice, seniors have the responsibility to care for their juniors and to demonstrate brotherly love, while juniors comply with the mentorship and discipline mandated by their seniors. ²⁹ Accordingly, the sibling-sibling relationship in this study defines the relationship between coaching assistants and players.

Paternalistic leadership as an analytical concept

Poczwardowski et al. ³⁰ noted that the coach–athlete relationship consists of two main components: a psychosocial component that includes cognitive aspects as well as behavioral and spiritual aspects and a component that focuses on the trust between coaches and athletes. Wylleman's study ³¹ noted that studying the coach-player relationship involves narrowing this relationship to the emotional feelings, thoughts, and roles of the members in this relationship. In the Western world, the multileadership model is often used, which emphasizes situational factors and players’ preferred leadership behaviors (training and instruction, democratic behavior, autocratic behavior, social support, and rewarding behavior).^32,33 However, in Chinese society, these factors work together to form an indigenous leadership style, that is, paternalistic leadership. Paternalistic leadership is the leadership style that is common among Chinese people. This leadership style is similar to that associated with patriarchy. It features a clear and powerful authority who simultaneously cares about and understands subordinates and exhibits a high degree of personal virtue. ³⁴

Paternalistic leadership consists of three dimensions, that is, authoritarianism, benevolence and moral character. ³⁵ Authoritarian leadership stems from the asymmetry between upper and lower levels of power in the context of Confucian relationships ³⁵ ; namely, this leadership behavior emphasizes the unequal power of the upper and lower levels and requires those in power to be obeyed without reservation. ³⁶ Benevolent leadership is a leadership behavior that involves a leader's personal, holistic, and long-term concern for the personal well-being of his or her followers. This form of leadership is based on the Confucian ideal of interpersonal reciprocity.^34,37 Finally, moral leadership can be described as a leadership behavior that demonstrates a high degree of personality, cultivation, and professionalism ³⁶ that correspond to the moral spirit implied by the duality of the relationships between each role in Confucianism as well as concepts associated with etiquette, such as obligations and norms. ¹³

Coaching leadership behaviors are a composite of thoughts, behaviors, and the organizational environment. ³⁸ In contrast to the structures of other organizations, such as industries or private companies, the structure of a sports team facilitates clear and direct relationships among its members; therefore, the group dynamics and interactions among players are frequent and continuous. ³⁹ On sports teams, coaches exhibit their leadership styles or behaviors in terms of three distinct elements or behaviors: caring for athletes as if they were their own children, focusing on discipline and the power of authority, and acting as a role model by serving as a personal example. ³⁴ In summary, paternalistic leadership not only shapes the leadership exhibited by Chinese sports coaches but is also, particularly in line with this society's leadership requirements with regard to the role of coaches. ²⁰

The relationship between Wulun and paternalistic leadership

Based on previous research results, Kao et al. ⁴⁰ argued that paternalistic leadership is one of the most popular topics in leadership behavior research focusing on sports. However, investigations of paternalistic leadership still have much to reveal. Another study aggregating paternalistic leadership research found that the subjects of paternalistic leadership research are mainly noncompetitive players; elite players have rarely been investigated, and most studies in this context have explored the effects of leadership behavior on outcome variables, with little focus on cultural dimensions. Accordingly, the literature has failed to combine or compare these ideas in depth. ⁴¹ The theory that both Wulun and paternalistic leadership are unique to Chinese culture has yet to be applied effectively. These two topics are worth discussing in tandem (Figure 1).

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Figure 1.

Conceptual model of Wulun and paternalistic leadership.

Traditional Wulun establishes the mode of Chinese interpersonal communication—“different from person to person”—which comprises human feelings and behavioral obligations. ⁴² When people are involved with their families and social networks, they have relative rights and obligations based on their personal identities, responsibilities, and morals ⁴³ ; they thereby exhibit different behaviors toward different people. Just as paternalistic leaders employ differentiated leadership styles with regard to their subordinates, they exhibit different degrees of authoritarian and benevolent leadership with respect to acquaintances and outsiders; however, moral leadership is related to the moral cultivation of a leader and thus does not differ across different subordinates. ⁴⁴ Such leaders fulfill their obligations and responsibilities by engaging in leadership behaviors that their subordinates are encouraged to imitate.^34,36 The theory of paternalistic leadership behavior is likely inseparable from Wulun.

The National Intercollegiate Athletic Games (NIAG), which were first organized by the Ministry of Education in 1969, are held annually at a host university ⁴⁵ and have become a major sports event in Taiwan. Badminton has become one of the core sports included in the NIAG every year. The development of players is cultivated at an early age, when players have an identity as a student. During this time, players not only receive technical guidance from coaches (teachers) but also need guidance and care in life. Coaches and players maintain a relationship of paternalistic leadership, which is suitable for describing coaches’ leadership. ⁴⁰ Players on a badminton team at a top-division university also face this situation, as they have identities as both players and students in training. In this context, it is meaningful to speculate that top-division university badminton teams exhibit paternalistic leadership and that this leadership is influenced by Wulun.

At the societal level, coaches are subject to the expectations of various parties and may therefore engage in leadership behaviors that they view as reasonable with respect to the achievement of specific objectives. ⁴⁶ Once relevant actors identify their relationships with others, their views concerning these relationships affect their actions. ⁴⁷ Therefore, a coach also faces interpersonal pressures from various relationships, and the process of leadership is associated with many complexities and challenges. ⁴⁸ Accordingly, this study takes the members (coaches and players) of top university badminton teams as its research object to explore the correlation between parental leadership behavior and Wulun based on interview data and references. The purpose of this study is to explain how Wulun affects paternalistic leadership behaviors and to clarify the manner in which paternalistic leadership behaviors promote changes in Wulun.

Participants

To ensure the completeness and representativeness of our data, this study was conducted using a qualitative multiple-case research design, and participants were recruited via purposive sampling. We initially defined our sampling criteria to prioritize the top six teams involved in top-division badminton at the 2019 NIAG. The authors decided to exclude all players who trained with commercially sponsored teams and ultimately selected players and coaches from two top-division NIAG teams as our participants. In total, 10 interviewees were included: two coaches, two player coaching assistants (i.e. player captains), and six players. All 10 respondents were male (Table l). Two coaches have led the team for more than 15 years; assistant coaches and other players have served as head coaches for more than one year and have participated in at least one college badminton match. The training pattern for coaches and players was 3 to 4 times a week, with each practice lasting more than 2 h. During the training process, the coach is present on a voluntary basis and needs to be present to supervise the players’ practice at each practice. Therefore, both parties have the conditions for long-term interaction, and there are certain credible reasons for choosing these respondents.

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Table l.

List of interviewees.

Code	Age	Seniority	Background	School site
A	20	1 year	Badminton player of NIAG	Central Taiwan
B	20	1 year	Badminton player of NIAG
C	20	1 year	Badminton player of NIAG
D	21	2 years (1 year)	Badminton coaching assistant and player of NIAG
E	53	18 years	Badminton coach of NIAG
F	21	2 years	Badminton player of NIAG	Northern Taiwan
G	21	2 years (1 year)	Badminton coaching assistant and player of NIAG
H	21	2 years	Badminton player of NIAG
I	21	2 years	Badminton player of NIAG
J	52	19 years	Badminton coach of NIAG

Note: Interviews with D & G's seniority in brackets reflect the seniority of a teaching assistant.

NIAG: National Intercollegiate Athletic Games.

Research tools

After analyzing the Wulun literature, this study found that the Wulun in the college badminton team can manifest as parent–offspring relationships (coach, player), ruler–subject relationships (school supervisor, coach), and sibling–sibling relationships (assistant and player, player). The interview questions are constructed based on these three relationships. As the main axis, the correlation with paternalistic leadership was analyzed. The study adopted semi-structured interviews, and the outline of each interview consisted of three parts. Before the formal interview, the researchers first conducted a literature analysis to collect literature on Wulun and paternalistic leadership and designed semi-structured interview questions after consulting three experts (two sports sociologists with qualitative research expertise and one external expert from the Ministry of Education Sports Bureau); the interview questions were thus structured.

Procedure

The interview period was from 27 August 2019 to 25 September 2019, with a total of 10 in-depth interviews targeting coaches (E and J), assistant coaches and players (D and G), and players (A, B, C, F, H, and I) on Taiwan's top-division university teams. The interview process for this study was divided into several stages. First, they were introduced through intermediaries who were familiar with these top badminton team members, and after explaining the interview process and research purpose over the phone, interviews were scheduled. After confirming the interviewee's willingness to participate, the researchers first provided a list of themes related to the study. In the process of arranging the interviews, each participant was informed in advance that the researchers from three different universities in Taiwan were interested in exploring the relationship between Wulun and paternalistic leadership and collected the necessary data for research. The study conducted 30- to 60-min interviews with each respondent in the offices of both teams. Before each interview, oral recordings confirmed that the interviewees grasped that their transcript would be used only for academic purposes and that their personal information and interview content would be kept strictly confidential. Each interview began only after confirming the participant's consent. Importantly, participants had the right to withdraw from the process without any liability. During this process, each interview was conducted in Mandarin while focusing on the interview content and personal experience of the interviewee. In this way, each interviewee could let his guard down and answer frankly, whereby we could collect valuable interview data.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis was conducted by reference to the interview data to allow the interviews to be reviewed in their entirety. ⁴⁹ First, the researchers listened to each interview repeatedly and transcribed each interview into a text document. By reading the transcripts, the researchers were able to identify experiential structures and contextual information to construct relevant themes. The interview data were coded preliminarily in accordance with two major themes: the occurrence of paternalistic leadership behaviors and discourse between coaches and team stakeholders. In accordance with the paternalistic leadership theme, the data were coded once again using the triad model of paternalistic leadership developed by Cheng et al. ⁵⁰ Dividing paternalistic leadership behaviors into the categories of authoritarian (dominant, despotic, and condescending), benevolent (individual care, compassion, and tolerance), and moral (upright, responsible, and selfless), the researchers searched the transcripts for keywords. Keywords were then categorized to help determine the type of leadership in question and the associated reaction on the part of the subordinate. To incorporate the concepts of Wulun into this investigation, the researchers defined role-specific expectations for each of the roles involved in this study. To ensure the validity of the content, the coded data were assessed by three experts in related fields (two sports sociologists with expertise in qualitative research and one external expert at the Sports Administration of the MOE). During these assessments, coding steps and details were inspected randomly to ensure data neutrality and the credibility of the results. This study combined the analysis of coaching leadership with the concepts of Wulun.

The use of data analysis of these interviews in isolation would have compromised the researchers’ ability to establish a sound argument. Accordingly, the researchers conducted document analysis by reporting research results to add necessary literature. Document analysis, which is employed throughout social studies, refers to the use of literature as an indirect research method. Some items from the literature may be extremely crucial to the current study, as they can help researchers understand and reconstruct the past, explain the present and predict the future. ⁵⁰ Our research results pertaining to patriarchal leadership behaviors were ultimately fruitful. Different styles of leadership were found to have impacts on organizational members across multiple dimensions. Our thematic analysis drew from the literature to expand its reliability and validity. Because most of the existing Wulun research has used family or business organizations as research objects, there has been limited focus on the field of sports. Accordingly, we adopted a triangulation test method, combining interview data, paternalistic leadership, and the relevant Wulun literature to lay the foundation for our analysis of the results. Finally, we focused on the relationship between coaching leadership behavior and Wulun to fulfill the purpose of this study.

Ruler–subject

Confucius stated that “The monarch entrusts his subjects with propriety, and his subjects serve the monarch with loyalty.” Hence, the monarch and his subjects should treat each other with courtesy. ⁵¹ Over time, the object of subordinates’ allegiance has shifted from ancient kings and countries to supervisors and organizations.^52,53 Influenced by traditional Chinese culture and thought, to stimulate the loyalty and effectiveness of subordinates, supervisors use the notions of “cronyism” (whether the supervisor and subordinates have an ethical relationship of blood or a similar relationship), “loyalty” (subordinates are loyal to supervisors, and it is obligatory to complete one's assigned tasks), and “talent” (the performance of completing the task by the exertion of one's personal effort and abilities) depending on whether the subordinate is classified as one's own, and in the context of this differential treatment, the subordinate comes to believe that he or she is valued and loved by the leader. To fulfill these expectations and repay the care of the supervisor, subordinates tend to work more diligently to aid the organization. ⁵⁴ There is a “family-like” relationship between supervisors and subordinates. Supervisors judge whether to allow subordinates to take on the responsibility of decision-making and management according to their abilities and performance, providing them with suitable jobs to protect their lives based on the results of such judgments ⁵⁵ :

I myself am a player, and I have also served as a player for the national team (talent), which will have some influence on my current teaching process … Therefore, I have to go to the university after being recommended by the teachers and follow the opportunity (cronyism & loyalty) … I think this is a kind of personal career planning. Career opportunities … (Coach E)

In Taiwan, managers of sports teams normally have control over various resources (funding and facilities) or even over the prospects of coaches to receive promotions. Such power puts pressure on coaches, who tend to be cautious with respect to the appropriate behaviors. ²² An interviewee expressed the following: “If you don’t have good performance, the school manager will restrain [you] more or cut the financial budget” (Player F). When resources are limited, to obtain necessary but limited resources, members must unite and compete with other groups. ⁵⁵ In sports for which the required environmental structures are relatively simple, the use of authoritarian leadership by coaches can thus improve team cohesion and the effectiveness of competitive activities. ⁵⁶ Coaches use various means of control, combined with personal authority, to induce subordinates’ obedience through authoritarian behavior ⁵⁷ :

Just like what happened in the last university, we couldn’t play well … Therefore, the coach just gathered us together and then explained why this happened, why it happened, and then he went to assign the whole training process … He would go down (strictly) to lead the practice, and then go and explain what balls to pay attention to … (Player C)

Familism is based on a Confucian class-centered system divided by power hierarchies, and this family-based form of collectivism is prevalent in Chinese society. ⁵⁸ Players obey their coach, while the coach must obey his or her supervisor. The obligations of each role may ultimately be directed toward the achievement of their group's goals. ²⁶ In a ruler–subject relationship, loyalty does not emphasize individual achievements but rather the goals of the organization ¹⁷ ; thus, authoritarian leadership becomes the most obvious mode of leadership.

Parent–offspring

Nonfamily relationships and behaviors grow to resemble family relationships and behaviors over time. ⁵⁹ Furthermore, in societies that include ethnically Chinese people, coaches not only train and instruct their players but also help them improve their self-management skills and provide them with appropriate direction in life. ⁶⁰ Li et al. ⁵⁸ interviewed Olympians and found that these players considered their coach to be similar to a father. However, our interview with the coach in this study indicates that the coach himself plays not only the role of a father but also multiple roles, such as teacher and friend when interacting with the players. In addition, coaches have highly consistent expectations of their players. Players also incur a variety of behavioral obligations due to the expectations entailed by multiple roles. At the same time, reflecting the role expectations associated with the Chinese family, “hope for children to become dragons and women to become phoenixes.” The context of such a family is transformed to encompass the players on the team:

My relationship with them is, in terms of my age, like their father, like a brother … like a teacher, like a coach, a more complex relationship … so I am usually a transformation, a supervisor to remind them or to wake them up, to care for them, and to tell them that they can think about how to make themselves better. (Coach E)

Based on the premise of intimacy, Confucianism focuses on the concept of family and the obligations among family members, for example, children obey their parents based on the notion of “filial piety”—an important ethical concept. ⁶¹ Through the influence of panfamilialization, the relationships among family members can be transferred to organizations outside the family ¹¹ ; hence, family ethics that attach importance to filial piety can also be extended to other organizations. ⁶² The focal coach thus has absolute authority over the training, learning, and behavior of his players, even controlling their thoughts and personal lives. When players violate the obligations of their role, their coach (leader) strictly monitors them (as subordinates), requiring their compliance with norms and achievement of goals according to specific rules and standards. ⁶⁰ The obedience associated with filial piety is therefore an important link in this father–son relationship^63,64:

Authoritarianism is what I said. When we were absent before, some people had a fluke mentality. This was because the director was busy. Before a university cup, those with poor practice habits, others who cannot come, or those who take time off and give up are serious. Then, he changed it into a statement and made a list of absentees because our specialty grades were also assigned by the director. (Coaching Assistant and Player D)

People fulfill their obligations according to their relational ethics and the appropriate level of intimacy. ⁶⁵ Leaders who demonstrate benevolent leadership consider caring for their subordinates to be an irrefutable obligation, while subordinates obey the norms associated with their role obligations after receiving favors. ⁶⁶ Paternalistic leaders play a benevolent role, genuinely caring for employees’ professional and personal lives. ⁶⁷ On a sports team, the coach's benevolent leadership behavior is expressed in terms of care for the players, including care for their lives and empathy for their hard work in training. ⁶⁸ Whether through relational companionship, positive verbal feedback, other advice or information, or even financial or material assistance, an athletic coach can foster an athlete's psychological well-being by exhibiting the values associated with benevolent leadership and can promote the well-being of all subordinates by engaging in implicitly altruistic and social behavior ⁶⁹ :

I am more in the (active) part of providing information and caring. When a competing student is in my care, he feels that he is valued, and the teacher also cares about me and seems to be helpful to him, so that he will be more proactive … As long as I am here, as long as they see me, they will come to me. I think that I may not be able to leave; I will definitely talk to you. (Coach E)

Coaches will even shape the paths of their favorite players after graduation. By using their own social capital, they seek units related to the school sports team and find job opportunities for their favorite students. ⁷⁰ In an obligatory relationship, role obligations and responsibilities are emphasized. Accordingly, a person will empathetically help others and provide necessary assistance and resources without asking anything from the other party in return. ⁷¹ The deeper the interaction between these two parties is, the deeper the emotions between the two parties ⁷² ; thus, personal behavior shifts from “should”-based reciprocity to a “voluntary” contribution ⁷³ :

After our team graduates, we will set up another group that belongs to the alumni group … Sometimes, I hope that this group will always care about the status of the graduates, or I have new information to provide them with … even alumni are connected, alumni care, they always come to encourage them (the players) and help them adjust both internally and externally. (Coach E)

The coach's paternalistic leadership behavior not only shows his authoritarian side without allowing players to challenge his authority but also expresses his kindness toward and cares for the players in an all-around way. ²⁰ To win the admiration and recognition of players, their coach must demonstrate superior conduct and self-restraint to become an object for the players to imitate. Because virtuous leadership is related to a leader's moral cultivation, it does not differ for different subordinates. A coach's behavior affects players deeply, not only in terms of their performance in competitions but also with respect to their moral behavior. ⁷⁴ Coaches who supervise or train players should therefore lead by example, which allows them to teach their players more by example than through words. ⁷⁵ By leading by example and encouraging players to reflect, coaches’ leadership effectiveness can be enhanced, and coach–player relationships can be deepened ⁷⁶ :

He will personally go to practice on the court or in the game and will explain to each player. Even if he sees that you are lacking or does not meet his standards, he will also tell you how to improve. Then, before he teaches you, he has already told you his standards, and he will be an example on the field. (Player B)

On a sports team, the authority of the coach cannot be challenged, and the players must obey him or her absolutely. Simultaneously, coaches should care for the needs of their players, highlighting their personal performance accomplishments and ensuring that they agree with one another. ⁷⁷ In the Chinese cultural context, patriarchy attaches great importance to the obedience of subordinates, shaping the obligations associated with their different roles and defining the relevant power gaps. People occupying particular roles must follow the associated obligations to maintain overall harmony. ⁷⁸ In parent–offspring relationships, there is a power gap between coaches and players that leads to differences in status levels. Here, the paternalistic leadership behavior with a ternary style helps coaches and players fulfill their respective obligations, while differentiated treatment methods maintain harmony in group relations.

Sibling–sibling

During socialization, the highest moral of filial piety and obedience to parental authority are transformed into the psychological basis of collectivism and behavioral obedience, in which context the authority of the father is transferred to the eldest brother. ⁷⁹ Due to panfamilialization, the relationship between coaches and athletes on sports teams is somewhat familial; the roles of players on a team are similar to the relationships among siblings in a family. ⁸⁰ Coaches are not the only source of leadership on a sports team. Peers are also an important source of leadership. Players with leadership skills lead their teammates toward the achievement of their goals and should also be viewed as exhibiting leadership. ⁸¹ Players on a team with more seniority are often given more complicated tasks and greater responsibilities by their coach. ⁸² The senior system is a system among players and their peers. This phenomenon is popular and common on school sports teams where seniors lead juniors and facilitate cultural transmission. ⁸³ On Taiwanese sports teams, with respect to harmony and trust, when subordinates obey their leaders absolutely, they are relied on more frequently by their leaders. ⁸⁴ Therefore, a coach tends to choose players with similar values to lead their team as assistant coaches and grants them the power to manage the team:

I don’t think that I am a role model myself because university students have goals themselves. I don’t want to be a role model for others … I can lead myself as far as possible. After all, although we are coaches, we are obligated to help, so if you can, you try to be there and talk about it as much as you can … If you don’t want to absorb what I have to say, I won’t be angry. (Coach J)

In terms of military organization management, the seniority system is a unique traditional culture. Seniors must communicate their experiences to their juniors not only in terms of life and study but also through their personal words and deeds; seniors must set an example and be a good role model-, undertaking the task of caring for younger students. ⁸⁵ The senior management system has become a common management model among athletes and peers in sports. ⁸³ The exercise of power is thus a demonstration of discipline and a basis for this model. To enable a team to manage itself effectively and operate sustainably, power helps maintain team harmony and prevent conflicts. ⁸⁶ When necessary, a senior needs to manage the life behavior of a junior on the field similar to a parent; the senior also functions as a team manager, instructing the junior to complete team affairs. He or she also plays the role of a senior elder, taking on the responsibility of caring for and supporting his or her juniors ⁸⁷ :

(Coaching Assistant and Player) He is a leader. Needless to say, the performance is conducted by the leaders; those who are moral and ethical, as well as punctual, and some other things. In fact, I have to do my best I think this is the most important thing to do as a senior. (Player B)

Caring for subordinates and balancing the power gap between the top and the bottom while exhibiting benevolent leadership behavior thus enables authoritarian leadership to be implemented smoothly. ⁸⁸ Echoing Wang, effective leadership is based on a combination of kindness and power, similar to the notions of Yin (陰) and Yang (陽) tolerance in Tai Chi (太極), in which context benevolence and authority complement each other. ⁸⁹ Paired with a leader's consistent words and deeds, personal morality helps established shared values with subordinates in an organization. ⁹⁰ Age-appropriate leadership behaviors are more effective on sports teams on which younger members dominate. ⁹¹ The salient premise for a team is that in a sibling–sibling relationship, the display of the three paternalistic leadership behaviors is indispensable for consolidating the transfer of generational ethics between a coaching assistant and players.

Research limitations and directions for future research

This study attempts to highlight the differences between Eastern and Western cultures through the Confucian “Five Cardinal Relationships” (Wulun) and the unique paternalistic leadership in mainstream Chinese culture. The limitation of this research is that the interviewees are all male. To some extent, a focus on male top-division university badminton tends to omit any addressing of gendered interests in relation to sport, and analysis of such interests would clearly benefit from other approaches. Thus, whether players of different genders can reach the same conclusion remains to be explored. In addition, the concepts of Wulun contribute to the analysis of the different styles of paternalistic leadership and address the expectations of which relationship people meet. Nevertheless, we have not identified whether the paternalistic leadership behavior in this relationship is “thrust” or “pressure.” Further exploration of these questions in the future would provide deeper discoveries for Chinese coaching and leadership practice.