Physiological,physical and anthropometric parameters in padel: A systematic review

Abstract

This study aimed to carry out a systematic review of existing research on physiological, physical and anthropometric parameters in padel. After searching through PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, 33 articles were analyzed, covering physiological, physical, and anthropometric parameters. Physiologically, heart rate varies by sex and play level; men amateurs show a lower maximum heart rate compared to semi-professionals and professionals (154.75 vs 169.72 vs 188.6 beats per minute). Women players maintain consistent maximum heart rate across levels (∼178 beats per minute). Lactate levels during competition indicate effort within the aerobic transition zone, peaking at 2.40 millimole per liter in women and 3.38 millimole per liter in men. Regarding maximal oxygen consumption, padel players exhibit levels around 76.3%, increasing to 95.1% during peak exertion. Biochemical and hematological parameters vary by sex, with men players typically having higher basal levels, while competition reduces certain elements like copper and zinc. Physically, men players exhibit superior jump height, strength, and maximum speeds around 2.09 kilometers per hour, with significant lateral movements. The average distance covered per match is 3000 meters, with higher-level players traveling less. Anthropometrically, men players are taller with a mesomorphic-endomorphic profile, while women players have an endomorphic-mesomorphic somatotype. The study highlights the need for tailored training based on specific player characteristics and calls for further research to better individualize physical preparation in padel.

Keywords

Heart rate lactate oxygen consumption racket sport somatotype

Introduction

Padel is a complex racket sport whose performance depends on the interaction of factors such as psychological skills, tactical and technical knowledge and physiological and physical abilities.^1–3 Likewise, this sport has undergone in recent years an increase in the number of investigations which have addressed different areas in which the analysis of performance has predominated over the others.⁴ In this sense, the large number of existing articles has allowed the development of different reviews that delve into performance indicators,^1,4,5 being of great practical utility allowing the creation of tactical situations in training and matches.

The physiological profile and physical demands in competition have been extensively analysed in other racket sports such as tennis or badminton.^6–9 These studies have enabled professionals to gain valuable knowledge and the apply them to specific training sessions. The specific characteristics of padel, however, does not allow this knowledge to be replicated due to the specific rules and court dimensions.¹⁰

Internal load includes three main physiological parameters, namely heart rate (HR), oxygen consumption ( $\dot{V} O_{2}$ ) and blood lactate concentrations.¹¹ HR has been the most widely used parameter to quantify efforts in competition due to its non-invasive methodology allowing to analyze the energy demand of a sport activity.¹² Similarly, heart rate variability (HRV), which evidence interactions between the heart, brain and sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, enables the prevention of injuries in athletes, in addition to the detection of overtraining and suboptimal athletic performance.^13,14 Maximal oxygen consumption ( $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ ) is defined as the capacity to transport and consume oxygen during maximal exercise and is a parameter associated with aerobic capacity, identifying the limits of cardiovascular function.¹⁵ Lactate concentrations obtained during competition allow the identification of the main energy pathways used during matches.^16,17 Such identification can facilitate appropriate physical preparation based on these demands. The study of the competition impact on haematological and biochemical parameters among padel players, allow coaches to design appropriate strategies for recovery and fluid intake according to sex.¹⁶ These parameters have practical significance in determining the nature of padel sports and adjusting its workload and intensity to meet competition demands.

Physical factors namely strength, agility and speed are necessary in padel, where players must develop fast and continuous movements with changes of direction in brief intervals.¹⁶ Thus, assessing and monitoring the physical condition of players has become essential in padel due to the importance of muscle power. Tests that analyse strength and power are key tools for optimizing neuromuscular performance related to the main strokes.¹⁸ Additionally, the likelihood of injury can be analysed with balance assessment^19,20 and asymmetries tests.²¹ Understanding the physical demands of competition and their impact on players allows coaches to adjust training loads based on the demands of competition and recovery sessions based on the competition demands in order to optimize players’ performance.

Body composition varies depending on sport and specific position played,²² and can be a determining factor in controlling performance.²³ This is particularly true for racket sports, where parameters such as anthropometry and body kinematics are associated to greater success in the sport.^24,25 Understanding of players based on sex and body characteristics, such as height, fat percentage, and muscle percentage, facilitates the adaptation of competition strategies and physical preparation tailored to each player's individual characteristics.

Previous literature reviews of the literature have analyzed the physiological demands of racket sports, showing lower HR, $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ and lactate concentrations compared to tennis, badminton and ping-pong.²⁶ Conversely, Mellado-Arbelo & Baiget² have analyzed the internal and external load demands of padel specifically from studies up to 2018. Therefore, with the increase in recent studies analyzing physiological factors, as well as the absence of reviews addressing the physical and anthropometric demands and characteristics of padel players, this study aimed to carry out a systematic review of existing research on physiological, physical and anthropometric parameters in padel.

Methods

Study design

The study was carried out based on the principles of systematic review indicated by Cartwright-Hatton et al.²⁷ The search for information was carried out using four databases specialized in sports science: Web of Science, Scopus, Pubmed and Google Scholar. Keywords used were: “padel” OR “paddle” OR “paddle-tennis” AND “fisiológico” OR “physiological”; “físico” OR “physical”; “rendimiento” OR “performance”; “antropométrico” OR “anthropometric”. The last search was conducted on 29 August 2024, including all research up to that date.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The selection of the articles included in the review was carried out using the following inclusion criteria: (a) sample of padel players; (b) original studies; (c) variables related to physiological, physical and anthropometric factors in padel; (d) studies published in scientific journals (JCR impact index, Scimago SJR index or meeting at least 30 Latindex criteria). We excluded (a) abstracts, conference papers and systematic reviews; (b) books or book sections; (c) padel modalities such as individual padel, adapted padel or wheelchair padel. Articles written in English and Spanish were included.

Identification and selection of studies

The process for searching for studies to be analysed followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method. The identification of potential studies to be included was based on six phases^28,29: (i) search for original studies in the databases, (ii) elimination of duplicate studies, (iii) first phase screening on title and abstract, (iv) second phase screening on the full text of the article, (v) forward search (references cited in the included studies) and (vi) backward search (citations of the included studies).

Risk of bias in included studies

The quality assessment of the articles was performed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool (CROB). It consists of six domains with the following scoring: high risk, low risk and unclear risk.³⁰ The methodological quality was described in the Figure 1. Overall, all studies were dominated by “low risk of bias” in the proposed quality criteria. The criterion allocation concealment (selection bias) showed some concerns, as well as the random sequence generation (selection bias)

Figure 1.

Methodological quality and percentage distribution of risk-of-bias items in included studies.

Results

The PRISMA flowchart shows the results obtained from the information search process (Figure 2). The initial search identified 231 articles for analysis and inclusion in the review. The first screening carried out on the title and abstract discarded a total of 184 articles because they were duplicates, belonged to book chapters and conferences and the indexing of the articles was insufficient to be included. The second screening of the full text of the study rejected a total of 10 articles due to the methodology used and results obtained, and 4 due to the quality of the articles. Finally, a total of 33 articles were included for analysis.

Figure 2.

PRISMA flow chart.

Articles analyzing physiological variables were the most frequently addressed (n = 18), followed by analysis of physical parameters (n = 15) and anthropometric factors (n = 7) (Table 1). The articles were published between 2007 and 2025, where 63% of the articles were published from the year 2020 onwards. Furthermore, of the total number of articles included, 82% were published in international journals with a JCR impact index and 18% with a Scimago SJR index. The summary of the sample and main results of each article analyzed in this review based on physiological, physical and anthropometric parameters are shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.

Table 1.

Classification of studies by subject of study.

N.°	Study	Physiology	Physical	Anthropometry
1	Miralles et al.³¹
2	Ryman-Augustsson et al.³²
3	Pradas et al.³³
4	Bourara et al.³⁴
5	Sáez De Villarreal et al.³⁵
6	Cabral-Mendes et al.³⁶
7	Delgado-García et al. ³⁷
8	Muñoz et al.³⁸
9	Muñoz et al.³⁹
10	Parraca et al.¹³
11	Pradas et al.⁴⁰
12	Villafaina et al.¹⁴
13	Muñoz et al.⁴¹
14	Courel-Ibáñez & Llorca-Miralles⁴²
15	Pradas et al.¹⁷
16	Pradas et al.⁴³
17	Courel-Ibáñez & Herrera-Gálvez⁴⁴
18	Pradas et al.¹⁶
19	Ramón-Llín et al.⁴⁵
20	Ramón-Llín et al.⁴⁶
21	Sánchez-Muñoz et al.⁴⁷
22	Muñoz et al.⁴⁸
23	Pradas et al.⁴⁹
24	Müller & Del Vecchio⁵⁰
25	Ramón-Llín et al.¹²
26	Sánchez-Alcaraz et al.⁵¹
27	Carbonell-Martínez et al.⁵²
28	Díaz-García et al.⁵³
29	Bartolomé et al.¹¹
30	Zabala-Lili et al.⁵⁴
31	Castillo-Rodríguez et al.⁵⁵
32	Pradas et al.⁵⁶
33	Hoyo-Lara et al.⁵⁷

The shading represents the subject matter analysed in the corresponding study.

Table 2.

Summary of physiology studies in padel.

N°	Study	Sample	Main Results
1	Pradas et al.³³	22 trained padel players (13 women in early-mid follicular phase after menstruation, and 9 men young-adult players) with more than five years of experience in the WPT circuit. Measurements in friendly matches.	Mean and maximum HR similar in both sexes with a mean HR of ∼140 bpm. Water intake volumes during the match ranged from 735 mL in women to 861 mL in men. Changes in plasma volume did not increase statistically significantly (1.1 ± 2.3%). Pre- and post-match gender differences in Cr [pre (women: 0.78 ± 0.08 mg/dL; men: 1.06 ± 0.12 mg/dL); post (women: 0.88 ± 0.12 mg/dL; men: 1.21 ± 0.11 mg/dL)], Ck [pre (women: 115.54 ± 62.93 U/L; men: 262.89 ± 189.02 U/L); post (women: 147.23 ± 97.88 U/L; men: 308.22 ± 187.12 U/L)]; and LDH [pre (women: 170.38 ± 25.28 U/L; men: 231.22 ± 30.44 U/L); post (women: 182.69 ± 20.92 U/L; men: 1308.22 ± 249.67 ± 38.75 U/L)]. LDL after match was higher in women (30.54 ± 17.29 IU/L) than men (20.44 ± 9.49 IU/L). In women, there are differences between pre and post respectively in: Cr (0.78 ± 0.08 vs 0.88 ± 0.1 mg/dL); urea (34.70 ± 8.04 vs 39.00 ± 9.42); LDL (29.54 ± 16.79 vs 30.54 ± 17.29 IU/L); Ck (115.54 ± 62.93 vs 147.23 ± 97.88 U/L); LDH (170.38 ± 25.28 vs 182.69 ± 20.92 U/L) and FABP-3 (1667.69 ± 597.78 vs 3218.73 ± 1921.99 ng/mL). In men, there are differences between pre and post respectively in: Cr (1.06 ± 0.12 vs 1.21 ± 0.11 mg/dL); urea (40.33 ± 8.38 vs 45.89 ± 8.58); LDL (22.11 ± 10.03 vs 20.44 ± 9.49 IU/L); Ck (262.89 ± 189.02 vs 308.22 ± 187.12 U/L) and FABP-3 (1945.57 ± 590.78 vs 3848.12 ± 890.16 ng/mL).
2	Bourara et al.³⁴	34 professional padel players	Values measured by laboratory test of lactate pre: 1.32 ± 0.26 mmol/L and post: 8.92 ± 2.79 mmol/L and basal HR of 57 ± 10 bpm and 184.9 bpm post-test.
3	Cabral-Mendes et al.³⁶	49 men players (age, 36,73 ± 1,50 years). Low and high level.	Higher level players presented higher levels of accuracy in a closed task. Differences in HR values at the end of exercise (160.96 ± 3.32 vs 153.80 ± 3.80 bpm), recovery at 60 s (35.33 ± 2.82 vs 22.68 ± 3.50 bpm) and 120 s (50.21 ± 2.75 vs 39.60 ± 3.32 bpm) between the high- and low-level groups.
4	Muñoz et al.³⁸	24 men amateur padel players (18–50 years). 1–2 years of experience, 1.5–4 h per week of play.	Mean HR between the winning pair (139.6 ± 17.19 bpm) and losing pair (141.5 ± 12.17 bpm) shows no difference, the result being non-deterministic.
5	Parraca et al.¹³	27 amateur padel players (37.26 ± 9.42 years).	RMSsd decreased significantly between the basal state (39.87 ± 19.64 ms) and rest between points (15.06 ± 10.15 ms), being even lower in the three game times. Alpha-1 was increased in recovery (1.51 ± 0.25) with respect to the basal state (1.25 ± 0.26), as was Alpha-2 (0.34 ± 0.11 vs. 0.51 ± 0.17), the latter increasing more in competition. Non-linear measurements, decreases sharply from baseline compared to matches. Low frequencies decreases from baseline (67 ± 16%) compared to competition (58–65%) but increases in recovery (76 ± 13%), as occurs with very low frequencies. High frequencies increase from baseline (5 ± 2%) compared to competition (23–29%), decreasing in recovery (9 ± 7%).
6	Pradas et al.⁴⁰	60 players U-14 (n = 15 men and n = 15 women); U-16 (n = 15 men and n = 15 women).	$\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ U-14 (47.21 ± 4.49 vs 41.29 ± 4.35 mL/kg/min) and U-16 (45.70 ± 2.34 vs 39.85 ± 2.73 mL/kg/min) higher in men than women. $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ U-14 (2.57 ± 0.41 vs 2.92 ± 0.34 lmin) and U-16 (2.12 ± 0.35 vs 2.19 ± 0.18 lmin) in men compared to women.
7	Villafaina et al.¹⁴	27 medium level players. Identification of the winning and losing pair.	Final result has no impact on HRV. The winning pair had a basal mean HR of 68.62 ± 11.64 bpm; 139.57 ± 17.12 bpm during the match and 95.01 ± 14.93 bpm at the end of the match. The losing pair show and mean HR of 65.79 ± 9.82 bpm; 143.63 ± 12.17 bpm during the match and 99.03 ± 10.85 bpm at the end of the match.
8	Pradas et al.¹⁷	28 WPT players, 13 men and 15 women.	Relative density (1.024 ± 0.004 vs 1.020 ± 0.005 g/mL) and (1.023 ± 0.005 vs 1.019 ± 0.006 g/mL), red blood cell count (4.99 ± 0.42 vs 4.23 ± 0.21 ×10¹²/L) and (4.99 ± 0.35 vs 4.19 ± 0.20 ×10¹²/L), haemoglobin (154.16 ± 10.92 vs 133.06 ± 6.89 g/L) and (153.53 ± 8.46 vs 131.06 ± 6.31 g/L) and hematocrit (0.44 ± 0.03 vs 0.38 ± 0.02 L/L) and post-competition (0.447 ± 0.02 vs 0.385 ± 0.01 L/L), in pre and post-competition is higher in men than in women players. Microalbuminuria in boys (47.25 ± 18.81 vs 207.51 ± 147.11 g/L) and girls (46.52 ± 33.67 vs 260.47 ± 328.64 g/L), is affected by competition.
9	Pradas et al.⁴³	30 WPT top 50 players (15 men, 15 women).	$\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ in men players of 55.43 ± 7.04 ml/kg/min and of 46.77 ± 4.57 ml/kg/min in women. Maximum HR of 185.35 ± 10.47 bpm in men and 187.53 ± 9.83 bpm in women.
10	Courel-Ibáñez & Herrera-Gálvez⁴⁴	18 non-professional men players. Low and high level.	Higher level players have better HR recovery values after 60 s (82 ± 4.1 vs 86.7 ± 4.1 bpm), showing greater accuracy in strokes (115.2 ± 24.7 vs 167 ± 24.7) and specifically in direct hits, volleys and wall strokes.
11	Pradas et al.¹⁶	30 WPT professional players: 14 men (age: 28.2 ± 7.9 years; heigh: 178.3 ± 4.4 centimeter; weight: 78.2 ± 8.5 kg), 16 women (age: 29.7 ± 3.7 years; heigh: 166.7 ± 5.1 centimeter; weight: 60.3 ± 4.4 kg)	Body weight parameters (75 vs 55 kg), red blood cells (5 vs 4.3 million), haematocrit (45 vs 40%), haemoglobin (15.5 vs 13.5 g /dL), mean corpuscular volume (90 vs 92 fL), uric acid (6 vs 4 mg/dL), glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (28 vs 20 U/L), glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (23 vs 15 U/L), albumin (5.1 vs 4.9 g/dL), lactate dehydrogenase (220 vs 180 U/L), sodium (140 vs 137 mmol/L), higher in men vs women. High intensity matches cause changes in glucose (85 vs 90 and 80 vs 100 mg/dL), potassium (5 vs 4.3 and 5.1 vs 4.4 mmol/L), pre- and post-match in men vs women. Parameters of urea (40 vs 45 and 30 vs 35 mg/dL), Cr (1.1 vs 1.3 and 0.8 vs 0.9 mg/dL), CK (225 vs 250 and 125 vs 150 U/L) and magnesium (2 vs 1.8 and 1.9 vs 1.65 mmol/L), in men versus women, have effects between sex and the pre- and post-match phase.
12	Ramón-Llín et al.¹²	14 men players: 7 PPT, 7 SV.	SV players: Mean HR of 159.1 ± 13.8 bpm and maximum HR of 188.6 bpm. PPT players: Mean HR of 153.7 ± 14.6 bpm and maximum HR 188.6 bpm. Mean and maximum HR ratio similar between both, being 84.3% of SV players and 82.4% of PPT players.
13	Carbonell-Martínez et al.⁵²	9 semi-professional and amateur women players aged 32.8 ± 12.3 years	Mean HR for the match was 150 ± 8.6 bpm. Peak of maximum HR of 179 ± 9.4 bpm. In set the highest mean and maximum HR are reached, decreasing in the following sets. The player on the right has a higher maximum HR (181 ± 9.2 bpm) and mean HR (153 ± 7.8 bpm) than the left player (maximum HR: 177 ± 10.5 bpm; mean HR: 137 ± 9.6 bpm).
14	Díaz-García et al.⁵³	8 men players, amateur level, third regional category. Matches of 1 h.	Maximum HR for the match was 154.75 ± 8.75 bpm. Mean HR of 126,78 ± 10,4 bpm. Minimum HR of 103.5 ± 9.1 bpm. 89.75% of playing time is aerobic work zone. During the rest, maximum HR of 144.16 ± 7.64 bpm and minimum HR of 96 ± 8.45 bpm. Laboratory tests show $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ values of 51.15 ± 5.73 ml/kg/min.
15	Bartolomé et al.¹¹	16 top level men padel players in local competitions.	Highly competitive matches cause effects on urinary trace element excretion. Metabolic processes of copper (11.40 ± 4.43 vs 17.28 ± 10.61 μg/L), nickel (1.71 ± 2.45 vs 3.49 ± 4.67μg/L) and zinc (3 56.73 ± 310.39 vs 560.18 ± 311.36 μg/L), increase post competition. Arsenic (56.91 ± 60.14 vs 52.65 ± 48.82 μg/L), molybdenum (66.96 ± 34.25 vs 71.62 ± 45.08μg/L) and selenium (34.40 ± 15.65 vs 45.53 ± 25.98 μg/L) are unchanged in competition. Lithium (61.39 ± 71.35 pre vs 46.96 ± 63.30 μg/L post) increases their organic retention.
16	Castillo-Rodríguez et al.⁵⁵	24 men players, three national categories. Measurements in friendly matches.	Mean HR of 149.1 ± 18.27 bpm, with second category players obtaining the highest values (156.4 ± 15.63 bpm). More playing time in HR3 zone (70–80% HR): 32.08 ± 19.89% of the total. Players in the first category spent more time in HR2 zone (50–70% HR): 43.66 ± 36.65%. Second category players in HR4 zone (80–90% HR): 32.8 ± 12.49%. Third category players in zone HR3: 37.52 ± 20.28%. Mean lactate of 2.87 ± 1.48 mmol/l. Values of 4.96 ± 2.09 on the perceived exertion scale.
17	Pradas et al.⁵⁶	6 professional players, minimum experience of 4 years in official circuit. Measured by matches.	Mean $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ values with respect to HR percentage of 76.3%, reaching 95.1% $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ in more intense moments. Mean HR of 151 ± 8.13 bpm, maximum HR of 177 ± 9.31 bpm and minimum HR of 125 ± 9.45 bpm. Basal lactate values of 1.36 ± 0.33 mmol/l, maximum values of 2.40 ± 0.66 mmol/l and 1.83 ± 0.31 mmol/l after the first set. After the match, values were 2.21 ± 0.80 mmol/l at minute 2, 1.94 ± 0.42 mmol/l at minute 4, 1.85 ± 0.42 mmol/l at minute 6 and 1.73 ± 0.42 mmol/l at minute 8.
18	Hoyo-Lara et al.⁵⁷	12 national category right-handed men players.	Mean HR for match of 148.30 ± 13.73 bpm, being 73.99 ± 4.65% respect to the maximum HR achieved in the laboratory test. Maximum HR in match (169.72 ± 18.41 bpm) is 84.90 ± 9.16% of the maximum HR obtained on the treadmill.

HR: heart rate; Bpm: heartbeats per minute; $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ : maximal oxygen consumption; HRV: heart rate variability; RMSsd: the root mean square of successive differences between normal heartbeats; mL: milliliter; Cr: creatinine; Ck: creatine kinase; LDH; lactate desydrogenase; LDL: lipoprotein lipase; FABP-3: fatty acid binding protein-3; kg: kilogram; mmol/L: millimol per litre; s: seconds; ms: milliseconds; ml/kg/min: millilitres per kilogram per minute; l*min. litres per minute; g/mL: gram per millilitre; g/L: gram per litre; L/L: litre per litre; g/dl: grams per decilitre; fL: femto litres; mg/dL: milligram per decilitre; U/L: units per litre; IU/L: international units per litre; μg/L: mircrograms per litre; ng/mL: nanograms per millilitre; WPT: World Padel Tour; PPT: Padel Pro Tour; SV: Selection of Valencia.

Table 3.

Summary of physical studies in padel.

N°	Study	Sample	Main Results
1	Mirelles et al.³¹	83 professional men players, ranked between 40th and 216th in the WPT ciruit.	3430 m average distance covered by players per match and 2401 m distance per-hour. Median maximum speed of 15.21 km/h. 55 arbitrary units of player load. 399 m median explosive distance travelled during matches and 253 m per match hour. 8 m was the median relative running speed of the players. The winners covered greater distance (2518.25 m) than the losers (2338.55 m), higher number of accelerations per hour (415.20 vs 382.35). 80% of accelerations occur between 1–2 m. There is no significant difference between winners and losers in decelerations, with 80% occurring between 1–2 m.
2	Ryman-Augustsson et al.³²	16 Swedish high school padel players (women = 2; men = 14) aged between 15 and 18 years old and with at least 1 year of experience.	Strength training generates improvements in lean mass (men: from 34.2 to 34.8 kg; women: from 25.6 to 26.5 kg). Improvements of 20% in peak isometric squat strength, 18% in relative strength and 69% in average rate of force development. Also 9% improvement in SJ and 6% in CMJ. Improvement of 14% for the 30 s sit-up test and in the 30 s side hop test performance on both the right (9%) and left leg (11%).
3	Bourara et al.³⁴	34 professional padel players.	Y-Balance test values for posteromedial reach distance (98 vs 96 cm), posterolatereal reach distance (106 vs 107 cm) and total score (98 vs 97 cm) are not affected by fatigue. Anterior reach distance (65 vs 60 cm) is affected by cumulative fatigue.
4	Sáez De Villarreal et al.³⁵	24 national and international men players.	60-min training sessions, with neuromuscular exercises of plyometrics, strength, COD. and specific pre-session power training, improve bipodal and unipodal vertical strength, hitting power, aerobic capacity and COD. in a symmetrical way. These neuromuscular exercises performed on the court and complemented with a specific post-exercise padel hitting session also improve hitting power.
5	Delgado-García et al.³⁷	96 players (53 men and 43 women) and control group, 76 alpine skiers (43 men and 33 women).	The practice of padel does not present asymmetries at the lower limb level, being 1.1 ± 0.8%. There were asymmetries in the upper limbs of 7.2 ± 5%, being higher when compared with the control group, which presented values of 1.4 ± 3.2%.
6	Pradas et al.⁴⁰	60 players U-14 (n = 15 men and n = 15 women); U-16 (n = 15 men and n = 15 women).	Men jumping values in SJ test (1765 ± 414 U-14 vs 2388 ± 397 W U-16) and CMJ (2002 ± 398 U-14 vs 2555 ± 382 W U-16). $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ in course navette test (2.57 ± 0.41 vs 2.92 ± 0.34 lmin). Distance covered (1129 ± 322 U-14 vs 1203 ± 160 m U-16). Mean speed (11.37 ± 0.80 U-14 vs 11.55 ± 0.40 km/h U-16). Flexibility (18.91 ± 6.38 U-14 vs 25.46 ± 8.94 cm U-16). Upper limb asymmetries (11.31 ± 5.09 U-14 vs 10.86 ± 2.85% U-16). Women jumping values in SJ test (1565 ± 277 U-14 vs 1724 ± 246 W U-16) and CMJ (1741 ± 289 U-14 vs 1894 ± 263 W U-16). $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ in course navette test (2.12 ± 0.35 vs 2.19 ± 0.18 lmin). Distance covered (726 ± 303 U-14 vs 807 ± 176 m U-16). Mean speed (10.26 ± 0.82 U-14 vs 10.51 ± 0.48 km/h U-16). Flexibility (29.31 ± 6.24 U-14 vs 32.42 ± 7.85 cm U-16). Upper limb asymmetries (5.82 ± 1.65 U-14 and 6.75 ± 1.42% U-16). There are no asymmetries in lower limb in lateral movement, accelerations and reaction time. Dominant and non-dominant hand strength values similar in age and differences between sex, being higher in men.
7	Courel-Ibáñez & Llorca-Miralles⁴²	34 players (19 men and 15 women), 13–17 years old, 2 years minimum experience in regional competitions.	Height men players (172.8 ± 8.5 cm). Height women players (158.6 ± 3.8 cm). Results of medicine ball throwing test with dominant hand (6 ± 1.3 vs 5.2 ± 1.3 m), shuttle run 3 × 10 m (8.3 ± 0.4 vs 8.8 ± 0.6 s) and ABK (27 ± 5 and 11.7 ± 3.6 cm), showed significantly higher values in men vs women. Non-dominant hand medicine throwing test showed differences according to playing experience.
8	Pradas et al.¹⁷	28 (13 men and 15 women). Measurements in WPT matches.	Women present values in SJ test (0.214 ± 0.04 vs 0.164 ± 0.062 m), CMJ (0.243 ± 0.05 vs 0.210 ± 0.04 m), ABK (0.289 ± 0.05 vs 0.246 ± 0.04 m), dominant hand grip strength (34.46 ± 4.94 vs 32.32 ± 4.27 kg) and non-dominant hand (27.95 ± 2.62 vs 26.03 ± 3.83 kg) pre versus post competition. Men presented values in SJ (0.270 ± 0.09 vs 0.262 ± 0.09 m), CMJ (0.319 ± 0.08 vs 0.343 ± 0.141 m), ABK (0.376 ± 0.09 vs 0.336 ± 0.07 m), dominant hand grip strength (50.50 ± 9.59 vs 55.24 ± 9.20 kg) and non-dominant hand (44.42 ± 7.60 vs 47.00 ± 8.72 kg) pre vs post competition.
9	Pradas et al.⁴³	30 top 50 WPT professional players (15 men, 15 women).	Women present values of explosive strength in CMJ (24.33 ± 5.4 cm), SJ (21.55 ± 4.65 cm) and ABK (9.29 ± 5.35 cm). Dynamometric force on dominant hand (33.72 ± 5.64 kg) and non-dominant hand (27.41 ± 3.33 kg). Flexibility (34.32 ± 7.59 cm). Agility in 10 × 5 m test (17.62 ± 1.15 s). Men present values of explosive strength in CMJ (32.67 ± 7.98 cm), SJ (26.67 ± 8.77 cm) and ABK (39.07 ± 9.68 cm). Dynamometric force on dominant hand (51.14 ± 9.19 kg) and non-dominant hand (46.19 ± 8.06 kg). Flexibility (28.27 ± 10.39 cm). Agility in 10 × 5 m (16.16 ± 1.2 s). Highest maximal strength values in boys bench press, leg press, knee extension, leg curl, pull-ups, overhead press, shoulder press.
10	Ramón-Llín et al.⁴⁵	4406 points from 27 national category matches.	Players travel a mean of 3000 m per match of which 50.8% is when the ball is in play. They travel a mean of 11 m per point and 80 m per game. The medium level players cover more distance, almost 400 m more than the high-level players and 900 m more than the low-level players in the active phase. The medium level players played the most points, almost 150.30 m more than the low-level players and 22 m more than the high-level players. There is a positive correlation between the number of points and the distance travelled.
11	Ramón-Llín et al.⁴⁶	2202 points from 18 regional category men's padel matches.	Advanced level players cover more distance per point (11.77 m) than the initiation (8.30 m). Beginner level players cover distances between 0–8 m in 60% of the points, 20% more than advanced level players. Advanced players cover 12% more distances over 16 m. The player who serves covers the most distance per point (13.61 m) followed by the rest player (12.35 m).
12	Müller & Del Vecchio⁵⁰	35 first, second and third category players from Brazil. 21 men (7 in each category) and 14 women (6 first category and 8 s category).	Results of YOYO test (424 ± 153 vs 348 ± 159 m), agility test (8.2 ± 0.6 vs 8.7 ± 0.9 s), VJ (34.6 ± 4.7 vs 30.3 ± 7.5 cm) and medicine ball throw (4,5 ± 0.8 vs 3.8 ± 1.1 m) show significant differences between sex, being higher in men. Higher level men players obtained lower levels of distance covered (308 ± 82 vs 480 ± 128 vs 485 ± 178 m), VJ heigh (33.6 ± 4.8 vs 36.2 ± 3.2 vs 34.0 ± 5.9 cm), medicine ball throw (4.1 ± 0.8 vs 4.6 ± 0.4 vs 4.8 ± 1.1 m). Higher level women players have better values in distance covered (293 ± 54 vs 190 ± 66 m) and VJ heigh (28.4 ± 5.3 vs 20.5 ± 4.6 cm).
13	Sánchez-Alcaraz et al.⁵¹	17 players, 11–16 years, 8 men and 8 women. Practice minimum 2 days per week. Minimum participation 10 tournaments per season.	Men players had better 20 m sprint times (3.87 ± 0.30 vs 4.29 ± 0.37 s) and medicine ball throw (625 ± 9.70 vs 423 ± 6.70 cm) than women players. Women players presented better values for 10 m sprint (2.84 ± 0.17 vs 2.56 ± 0.26 s) and COD (15.39 ± 3.06 vs 14.39 ± 2.32 s). Linear velocity and COD variables correlate positively with each other. Force variables with linear velocity and COD correlate negatively with each other.
14	Bartolomé et al.¹¹	16 top level men players in local competitions.	Distance per match 2052 ± 327 m, per set 1026 ± 163 m, per game 111 ± 24.6 m. Mean speed 2.59 ± 0.40 km/h, maximum speed 15.4 ± 1.58 km/h, half of the distances (47.86%) are covered at speeds between 3–6 km/h, followed by 0–3 km/h (32.64%). Half of the movement (52.31%) are made laterally, followed by forwards (43.29%).
15	Castillo-Rodríguez et al.⁵⁵	24 men players, three national categories. Measurements in friendly matches.	Players in the third category covered more distance, followed by players in the second category. Mean distance covered per set of 852.7 ± 342 m and 1813.7 ± 745.7 m per match. Mean speed of 2.09 ± .03 km/h, with 50.33% of the actions in speeds of 0–2 km/h and 46.84% in speeds between 2.1–7 km/h.

CMJ: counter movement jump; SJ: squat jump; ABK: abalakov jump; VJ: vertical jump; COD: change of direction; cm: centimeter, m: meter; km/h: kilometer per hour; kg: kilogram; s: seconds; W: power; l*min: litres per minute; U-14: under 14 years ; U-16: under 16 years; WPT: World Padel Tour.

Table 4.

Summary of anthropometric studies in padel.

N°	Study	Sample	Main Results
1	Muñoz et al.³⁹	100 first classified of the WPT ranking, both in men category (age: 30.41 ± 7.53 years) and women category (age: 29.03 ± 7.48 years).	Men players (1.80 ± 0.06 m) are taller than women players (1.67 ± 0.06 m). The tallest players are those playing on the left side of the game for both men (1.81 ± 0.05 m vs 1.76 ± 0.06 m) and women (1.69 ± 0.06 vs 1.64 ± 0.06 m), with the difference disappearing when compared to left-handed players. Left-handed players are taller than right-handed players playing on the right side of the court in men (1.80 ± 0.05 m vs 1.76 ± 0.06 m) and women (1.70 ± 0.06 m vs 1.64 ± 0.06 m). There is a direct relationship between height and ranking in women players (r = −0.220,R² = 0.049, p = 0.014), specifically in right-side padel players, being taller those players with better ranking (r = −0.403,R² = 0.162, p = 0.006).
2	Muñoz et al.⁴¹	40 men players: 20 first category players (high level, age: 28.3 ± 8.3 years) and 20 third category players (low level, age: 30.5 ± 7.5 years).	First category players have a higher muscle percentage (47.14 ± 1.37 vs 45.01 ± 3.30) and lower fat percentage (11.98 ± 2.27 vs 14.86 ± 3.20), especially in central body folds, both abdominal (19.53 ± 7.56 vs 31.82 ± 8.07 mm), suprailiac (12.41 ± 6.50 vs 17.78 ± 6.49 mm), subscapular (11.34 ± 4.43 vs 20.45 ± 7.77 mm) and in the sum of 6 folds (86.02 ± 23.49 vs 115.70 ± 33 mm). They also have a more ectomorph somatotype (2.58 ± 1.20) than the lower category players (1.65 ± 0.78), related to the longitudinal structure of the limbs. Lower category players have a more endomorph somatotype (5.03 ± 1.42) than higher category players (3.92 ± 1.12).
3	Sánchez-Muñoz et al.⁴⁷	60 men players (27.7 ± 6.4 years) professionals participating in WPT and PPT.	Elite players had significantly lower values for thigh skinfolds (10.6 ± 3.8 vs 14.1 ± 5.7 mm), calf skinfolds (6.7 ± 2.3 vs 9.3 ± 4.4 mm), sum of six and eight skinfolds (84.5 ± 30.7 vs 102.7 ± 38.5 mm and 95.3 ± 33.3 vs 116 ± 43.2 mm, respectively) and sum of lower limb skinfolds (17.3 ± 5.4 vs 23.5 ± 9.9 mm) than the subelite group. Elite padel players had lower values for body fat percentage (9.7 ± 3.3 vs 12.5 ± 4.7%) and thigh fat area (27.5 ± 9.4 vs. 36.6 ± 15.4 cm² ). The mean somatotype of the elite padel players was: 3.7–5.7–2.0, characterized as endo-mesomorphic.
4	Muñoz et al.⁴⁸	30 regional third category men players divided: LVP (n = 15; 33.45 ± 7.52 years) and HPV (n = 15; 30.3 ± 8.25 years).	There are no differences between LVP and HVP players in 6-fold sum (112.38 ± 31.3 vs 121.17 ± 33.83), fat percentage (14.54 ± 3.04 vs 15.40 ± 3.29), muscle percentage (46.09 ± 3.60 vs 43.80 ± 2.50), fat weight (11.98 ± 3.37 vs 12.77 ± 3.39 kg), muscle weight (27.4 ± 7.16 vs 26.06 ± 5.52 kg), respectively. Somatotype is endomorph (4.87 ± 1.24 vs 5.25 ± 1.43) and mesomorph (4.78 ± 1.78 vs 5.10 ± 1.38). A greater volume of play does not modify body composition, with intensity being more decisive.
5	Pradas et al.⁴⁹	29 elite players, 15 men (age: 28.2 ± 7.9 years) and 14 women (age: 29.7 ± 3.7 years), professionals participating in WPT and PPT tournaments.	Men show a height of (178.3 ± 4.4 cm). Tricipital (9.9 ± 3.1 mm), thigh (15.3 ± 5.5 mm) and leg (9.5 ± 4.3 mm) skinfolds. Adipose component by the sum of six skinfolds (72.4 ± 26.9 mm). Fat weight (10.6 ± 2.5%). Muscle weight (43.4 ± 2.4%). Women show a height of (166.7 ± 5.1 cm). Tricipital (16 ± 4 mm), thigh (23 ± 4.6 mm) and leg (15.1 ± 3.9 mm) folds. Adipose component by the sum of six skinfolds (92.6 ± 18.8 mm). Fat weight (17.6 ± 2.7%). Muscle weight (36.6 ± 2.8%). Both sexes are characterized by a dominant mesomorphy (5.4 ± 0.9 vs 4.0 ± 0.7) and endomorphy (2.8 ± 0.9 vs 3.8 ± 0.7) higher than ectomorphy (2.0 ± 0.7 vs 2.6 ± 0.6) in boys and girls respectively. The somatotype obtained by men is mesomorphic-endomorphic while that of women is endomorphic-mesomorphic.
6	Zabala-Lili et al.⁵⁴	26 players: men (n = 14, 20.38 ± 1.92 years); women (n = 12, age: 19.73 ± 2.37 years). During the U23 Spanish Padel Championship.	Men have a height of 178.89 ± 7.43 cm, body mass of 74.27 ± 11.35 kg, 6-fold sum of 76.45 ± 19.49 mm with a predominant mesomorph somatotype (6.99 ± 1.26). Women have a height of 166.82 ± 7.43 cm, body mass of 58.06 ± 6.76 kg, sum of the 6 folds of 94.79 ± 24.67 mm with a predominant endomorph (3.89 ± 1.38) and mesomorph (3.29 ± 0.84) somatotype.
7	Pradas et al.⁵⁶	Six professional players, minimum experience of 4 years in official circuit.	Body composition characterized by a fat percentage of 17.3 ± 1.4 and 45.7 ± 1.5 muscle. The results of endomorphy (3.7 ± 0.5), mesomorphy (4.2 ± 0.6) and ectomorphy (2.5 ± 0.7), classify women's padel as an endo-mesomorphic sport.

M: meter; Kg: kilograms; mm: millimeters; cm: centimeters; Cm2: square centimeters; WPT: World Padel Tour; PPT: Padel Pro Tour; LVP: low volume practice; HVP: high volume practice.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to carry out a systematic review of existing research on physiological, physical and anthropometric parameters in padel. After employing the search methodology and selecting articles, 33 studies were ultimately included, which address three key areas: physiology, physical parameters, and anthropometric factors.

Physiology

The physiology characteristics of padel vary mainly depending on players’ sex and their level of play. These characteristics includes heart rate, lactate, maximal oxygen consumption and biochemical and haematological parameters.

Heart rate

The HR variable is conditioned by variables such as sex, level of play, side of play, scoreboard and temporal aspects of play. In the case of men players, at the amateur level matches, the attain a maximum HR values of 154.75 ± 8.75 beats per minute (bpm) and mean HR of 126.78 ± 10.4 bpm.⁵³ These values are lower than those obtained in semi-professional matches for both maximum HR (169.72 ± 18.41 bpm)⁵⁷ and mean HR (149 bpm).^14,57 In contrast, Ramón-Llín et al.¹² showed higher mean HR values (159.1 ± 13.8 bpm) and maximum HR (188.6 bpm) in national team players compared to the previously mentioned values, possibly due to a recent increase in the play's intensity. However, these values represent 73.99 ± 4.65% and 84.90 ± 9.16% of the mean HR and maximum HR respectively when compared with maximal effort tests on treadmill.⁵⁷ These values are relevant when comparing data from both the competition and laboratory. Finally, professional players from both the World Padel Tour (WPT) and Padel Pro Tour (PPT), show mean HR (153.7 ± 14.6 bpm) and maximum HR (188.6 bpm) values.¹² Additionally, higher level players have better HR recovery values after 60 s.⁴⁴ Therefore, the physical demands of low-level games are comparatively lower in national and professional categories and exhibit slight variation among different levels of play.

In relation to women players, at the amateur level, they exhibit a mean HR of 150 ± 8.6 bpm during competition, with maximum HR values reaching 179 ± 9.4 bpm.⁵² These values align with the mean HR (151 ± 8.13 bpm) and maximum HR (177 ± 9.31 bpm) indicated by Pradas et al.⁵⁶ in professional WPT players, who also showed minimum values of 125 ± 9.45 bpm. Therefore, HR values in women are not altered depending on the level of play.

Finally, with regard to the set, Carbonell-Martínez et al.⁵² have indicated that the mean and maximum HR are greater in the first set, and decrease with subsequent sets, the rest time allow for a decrease of approximately 30 bpm in the mean HR. In terms of the side of play, the right player in semi-professional and amateur women obtains higher maximum HR (181 ± 9.2 vs 177 ± 10.5 bpm) and mean HR (153 ± 7.8 vs 137± 9.6 bpm) compared to the left player.⁵³ Regarding the match outcome, mean HR values are not affected at baseline, during the match or post-match between the winning and losing pair.^14,38

Likewise, HRV is a crucial factor to employ in training and competition for both genders to decrease the risk of injury and overtraining.¹³ Additionally, players with a higher level of play exhibit elevated HR values during precision exercises, as well as superior values after 60 and 120 s than players with a lower level of play.³⁶ This is why padel is considered a predominantly aerobic sport with very high-intensity short game actions.

Lactate

During padel competition, women players’ lactate concentrations increase from basal levels of 1.36 ± 0.33 millimoles per litre (mmol/l) to a maximum of 2.40 ± 0.66 mmol/l., these concentrations decrease after the first set and after the subsequent minutes of play.⁵⁶ Regarding men players in national category, their values range between 2.87 ± 1.48 mmol/l and 3.38 ± 1.83 mmol/l depending on the level of play.⁵⁵ Padel is a sport whose effort is in the aerobic transition range, reaching values close to mixed aerobic-anaerobic zones, where the phosphogen system (ATP-PCr) is mainly used, with anaerobic glycolysis playing a minor role.⁴³ In treadmill tests, lactate concentration values and HR rise up to 8.92 ± 2.79 mmol/l and 184.9 bpm respectively,³⁴ making it worthwhile to compare physical abilities in laboratory tests.

Maximal oxygen consumption

$\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ (i.e., values based on the percentage of HR) indicate tha padel achieve values nearing to 76.3% of $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ , with records close to 95.1% in the most intense moments of competition.⁵⁶ In laboratory test, amateur players ${exhibit}_{\dot{V} O 2 \max}$ values of 51.15 ± 5.73 millilitres per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min) in laboratory tests,⁵³ this is lower than $\dot{V} O_{2 máx}$ capacities in men professional players (55.43 ± 7.04 ml/kg/min), but higher than those obtained by women players (46.77 ± 4.57 ml/kg/min).⁴³ Additionally, $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ values are conditioned by age, being higher in older players.⁴⁰

Biochemical and haematological parameters

Biochemical and haematological parameters are sex-dependent, parameters of blood composition (red blood cells, haematocrit, haemoglobin), waste products (uric acid, lactate, lactate dehydrogenase), liver enzymes (glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase), proteins whose function is osmotic pressure and transport of substances in the blood (albumin) and essential elements for the functioning of the organism such as sodium, all of which are essential for the functioning of the organism, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase), proteins whose function is the osmotic pressure and transport of substances in the blood (albumin) and essential elements for the functioning of the organism such as sodium, all of them at basal levels, are higher in men players compared to women players.¹⁶

On the contrary, the physical exertion during competition induces a rise in vital trace minerals required for bodily function, including copper, nickel, and zinc, post-match.¹¹ Furthermore, the amount of high albumin identified as microalbuminuria increases post-match.¹⁷ In contrast, blood composition in relation to erythrocytes (red blood cells), ratio of blood density to water density (relative density), percentage of red blood cell volume in relation to total blood volume (haematocrit) and proteins responsible for transporting oxygen through the blood (haemoglobin) decreases post-competition,¹⁷ as well as lithium, which is important to ensure the correct development of the vital functions in which it intervenes.¹¹ Gender differences in pre- and post-match values show differences in creatinine, creatine kinase and lactate desydrogenase being higher in men, with post-match lipoprotein lipase being higher in women.³³

Finally, both competition and sex of players as a whole have an effect on chemical elements (potassium), body system sugars (glucose), waste products related to kidney function (urea and creatinine), essential minerals (magnesium), enzymes related to muscle damage (creatine kinase).¹⁶

Physical parameters

In relation to the physical parameters of padel players, as analysed in both field tests and competition, it is paramount to note several factors, including vertical and horizontal force, change of direction, maximum strength, distance covered, balance, flexibility, and training sessions.

Vertical force

When vertical force is evaluated through vertical jumps, it has been overserved that that men players exhibit superior jump height and jump power.^42,43,50 When this parameter is evaluated pre and post-competition, Pradas et al.¹⁷ found that the jump height in both sex is not affected by the competition, even boys exhibit higher CMJ values post-competition. This could potentially be attributed to the breaks preventing fatigue at the neuromuscular level of the lower limbs during the competition. On the contrary, explosive strength for U-14 and U-16 players is also influenced by age, with the ability to generate more strength increasing as players age.⁴⁰

Horizontal force and change of direction

When horizontal force is evaluated through a sprint, younger women players exhibit superior acceleration and values within distances less than 10 meters (m) and men players greater values in 20 m distances.⁵¹ Competition results show indicate that men players in national category have an average speed of 2.09 ± .03 kilometer per hour (km/h), executing 50.33% of the actions at speeds between 0–2 km/h and 46.84% between 2.1–7 km/h,⁵⁵ and reaching maximum speeds of 15.21 km/h.³¹ Bartolomé et al.¹¹ also report similar values further adding that half of the actions are performed at speeds between 3–6 km/h, followed by actions of 0–3 km/h, with half of the movements being lateral. Regarding accelerations and decelerations, 80% of both occur between 1–2 m, with the gainers performing more accelerations than the losers (415.20 vs. 382.35).³¹ In terms of agility, women demonstrate superior values to men, both during adolescence (11–16 years),⁵¹ and at professional level.⁴³ Additionally, these two factors, linear speed and change of direction agility, are positively correlated with each other, as found in the study by Sánchez-Alcaraz et al.⁵¹

Maximum strength

Maximum strength is a key factor in padel. Researches indicate a higher dynamometry and maximum strength values in boys.⁴³ Likewise, the competition has minimal impact on the dynamometry values of the dominant hand, being in girls decrease slight and exhibit a slight increase in men players.¹⁷ Thus, it can be inferred that the grip of the paddle with the dominant hand does not lead to a high level of fatigue. On the other hand, the use of the racket with the dominant arm result in upper limb asymmetries concerning grip strength between both arms.^17,43 Conversely, this sport does not induce asymmetries in the lower limbs.³⁷

Distance covered

In relation to distance covered during competition, Castillo-Rodríguez et al.⁵⁵ found that the mean distance covered during friendly matches was 1813.7 ± 745.7 m. This value is similar to those presented by Bartolomé et al.,¹¹ who also points out that in local level competition players reach 2052 ± 327 m. In contrast, Ramón-Llín et al.⁴⁵ have shown that competitive matches have an average distance of 3000 m, while local and friendly matches require less travel, with winners covered greater distance than the losers.³¹ Players at a higher-level travel less than those at a lower level, as well as those who play fewer points.^45,55 Similarly, 50.8% of all distance covered occurs when the ball is in play and this is 80 m per game.⁴⁵ In terms of distance covered per point, competitive players travel an average of 11 m, with advanced players covering more distance and lower-level players covering distances between 0–8 m in 60% of the points.^45,46 Finally, the player who serves covers the greatest distance per point (13.61 m) followed by the receiver (12.35 m).⁴⁶

Balance and flexibility

Balance values after a stress test demonstrate that padel players have imbalances in relation to the reach distance at the anterior level due to accumulated fatigue.³⁴ Additionally, it is important to consider flexibility, as women players demonstrate superior flexibility values.⁴³ Both parameters are important for control and training.

Training sessions

In relation to strength training sessions, neuromuscular exercises with plyometric work, strength, changes of direction and pre-training power produce significant improvements in both bipodal and unipodal strength, aerobic capacity and symmetrical changes of direction and jump capacity.^32,35 Additionally, striking power can be increased if this work is carried out on the track and is followed by specific striking after each exercise, as suggested by Sáez De Villarreal et al.³⁵

Anthropometry

Anthropometric factors allow us to define the characteristics of padel players, primarily by evaluating their height, body fat and muscle percentage, and somatotype.

Height of players

Research indicate that men players have a greater height than women players.^39,49,54 Additionally, height impacts court position with right-side players being taller than left-side players, and left-handed players taller than right-handed players playing on the right-hand side of the court, irrespective of sex.³⁹ Finally, a direct relationship exists between height and ranking among women players, specifically in right-sided padel players, with taller players having higher rankings.³⁹

Fat and muscle percentage

Padel players exhibit body values in which muscle percentage predominates over fat, especially in the central body folds.^41,56 Lower values are apparent in elite players in comparison to players competing at the national level,⁴⁷ and are also lower in men.^49,54 The volume of sport practice does not impact body composition in regional categories, as players with high and low level of practice exhibit similar values, which may have a greater impact on game intensity.⁴⁸

Somatotype

The somatotype profile of men players at the regional level is characterized by endomorphic and mesomorphic profile.⁴⁸ First category players also exhibit an endomorphic somatotype, in contrast, third category players are predominantly ectomorphic.⁴¹ In the U23 category, the mesomorph profile predominates.⁵⁴ At the professional level, the endo-mesomorphic profile are predominant.^47,49 Women's padel is characterized by a predominant endomorphy-mesomorphy in U23 players,⁵⁴ and also among semi-professional and professional players.^49,56

Limitations and future directions of research

Research on padel has increased in recent years, focusing primarily on performance indicators to understand game dynamics. However, the impact and demands of competition on padel players, despite being equally important, have received less attention. Although numerous studies have analyzed physiological, physical, and anthropometric parameters, which have provided insights into the demands of competition and the profiles of padel players, as demonstrated in this study, a limitation lies in the relatively limited research conducted in this area. This limitation hinders the ability to compare information across different categories and levels of play in both men's and women's padel. This limitation suggests that future research on padel should also focus on analyzing physiological demands across various tournaments and the influence of factors such as climate and altitude. Future studies should also aim to employ a consistent methodology to study different types of players at various levels and across both genders, thereby increasing the sample size and enabling more robust comparisons of the results. Another limitation arises from the fact that some studies have been conducted in friendly matches. It would be valuable for future studies to replicate the same methodology and sample in competitive settings, as the demands may differ. Finally, although most of the included studies have been conducted in the last four years, the ongoing physical evolution of players may alter these demands, necessitating continuous research updates to ensure proper training planning for players.

Conclusions

In conclusions, the average HR in professional padel is ∼140–150 bpm, with maximum HR values reaching 177–188 bpm. Lactate levels in competition are between 2.40 mmol/l in women and 2.87–3.38 mmol/l in men, indicating that the effort is in the aerobic transition range. These values approach the mixed aerobic-anaerobic zones, where the ATP-PCr is the primary energy source, with anaerobic glycolysis playing a minor role. $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ levels were found to be around 76.3%, reaching values of 95.1% at the most intense times. Biochemical and haematological parameters exhibit sex-dependent variation. During physical exertion, competition induces a reduction in copper, nickel, and zinc, red blood cells, relative density, haematocrit, haemoglobin, and lithium, while an increase in microalbuminuria is observed. Wight gender differences pre- and post-match with creatinine, creatine kinase and lactate desydrogenase being higher in men. Physical factors also vary according to sex and age, and should be adapted according to the characteristics of the athlete. The maximum speed is 2.09 km/h, with 50.33% of the actions performed at speeds between 0 and 2.1 km/h. The velocity decreased by 2 km/h and 46.84% between 2.1–7 km/h, with lateral displacements being the main ones. 80% of accelerations and decelerations occur between 1–2 m, and the winners perform more accelerations than the losers (415.20 vs. 382.35). The average distance covered per match was 3000 m, with 50.8% of the match duration spent when the ball was in play. Finally, men players are taller than women players. Padel players exhibit body values in which muscle percentage predominates over fat. The men body type is characterised by an endomorphic and mesomorphic profile, while the women body type is characterised by an endomorphic and mesomorphic profile and endomorphy-mesomorphy.

Practical applications

The findings of this study offer valuable insights for training and physical preparation in padel. Coaches can use specific HR metrics to tailor training intensity, noting that professional players reach a peak HR of 188.6 bpm and an average HR of 153.7 bpm, underscoring the need for high-intensity training to boost cardiovascular endurance and recovery. Lactate levels in male national-level players, reaching up to 3.38 mmol/l, highlight the importance of combining aerobic and anaerobic training. Additionally, $\dot{V} O_{2 \max}$ values of 55.43 ml/kg/min in men and 46.77 ml/kg/min in women players suggest that endurance training is critical for enhancing aerobic capacity.

Biochemical and hematological parameters provide further guidance for customizing nutrition and training programs by gender. For example, higher baseline levels of red blood cells, hematocrit, hemoglobin, liver enzymes, and albumin in male players suggest a greater oxygen transport capacity, influencing training load and recovery strategies to optimize performance. The increase in essential trace minerals like copper, nickel, and zinc during competition highlights the need for proper supplementation and diet to restore these nutrients post-match. The post-match rise in microalbuminuria and decrease in erythrocyte, hematocrit, and hemoglobin levels indicate significant physiological stress, requiring targeted recovery approaches such as rehydration and oxidative stress management to prevent chronic fatigue.

Physical parameters are vital for padel performance due to the demands of competition. These metrics can be used as benchmarks for personalized training. For instance, average CMJ jump heights of 24.33 cm in women and 32.67 cm in men indicate that falling below these values could affect sports performance. Moreover, the maximum speed in competition is 15.21 km/h, with most actions occurring at 3–6 km/h, and 80% of accelerations and decelerations taking place within 1–2 m. This suggests that training should emphasize explosive strength and acceleration over short distances, with on-court training covering approximately 3000 meters.

The analysis of anthropometric parameters highlights the need for a comprehensive assessment of padel players to optimize performance. Height, body composition, and somatotype are critical factors influencing gameplay, tactics, and overall performance. Differences between competition levels and genders should be considered when designing personalized training and nutrition programs. By understanding these physical characteristics, coaches can develop more effective strategies to enhance performance and prevent injuries, enabling padel players to reach and sustain their maximum potential in this physically and tactically demanding sport.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Iván Martín-Miguel

Adrián Escudero-Tena

Bernardino J Sánchez-Alcaraz

Diego Muñoz

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