Team trust in professional women's cycling teams

Introduction

Bicycle road racing is an endurance sport in which the competitors must cope with tremendous physical and psychological demands in both training and competition.^1,2 Success in cycling depends on the rider's ability and opportunity to preserve and apportion energy as it is needed during a race, for example having enough energy to be in a breakaway (where one or more riders try to separate themselves from the main pack of riders, the ‘peleton’) or to surge in the intense sprint finish at the end of the race. In a professional cycling team, assigned roles are commonly the climber (often a lighter weight rider who specializes in hilly or mountainous racing), the sprinter (a powerful rider who can perform high-velocity burst finishes), the time trialist (a strong endurance rider who excels at maintaining a high speed over a long period of time to win stage sprints or time trials) and the protected rider (the rider who is favored by the team to win either the day's stage or the overall) (for a brief explanation about roles/rider types see Lycett. ³ The protected rider may vary from stage to stage and be a climber on a mountain stage, or a sprinter on the flats or one of the general classifications (GC) contenders (riders going for the best overall time in the event rather than an individual stage win). Behind the individual winner of every stage or overall title, there is a whole team that has worked together to ensure success. ⁴ Therefore, a cycling team needs supporting riders, termed as ‘domestique’ or ‘gregarious’ riders that are necessary to ensure success through helping the protected rider to win. ⁵ The supporting riders’ main functions are to help the protected rider by sheltering them from the wind, physically buffering them from other riders, bringing water and food from the team car, and if necessary, handing over their own bike to the protected rider, if necessary, e.g., in the case of a flat tire. Not surprisingly professional road cycling has therefore been identified as ‘an individual sport practiced in teams’, ⁶ where success is dependent on a well-functioning team within which members have different roles and responsibilities.

Previous research in professional women's cycling ⁷ has identified how there is a complex interplay between the internal, social, environmental and cultural factors that contribute to the success (or lack of) within a cycling team (e.g., poorer career and working conditions, short term contracts). Although Vaughan et al. ⁷ were specifically looking at stressors and coping within professional women's cycling they identified how there was a clear interplay between team hierarchy, relationships and battling for contracts (e.g., different roles, high and low status athletes, reduced personal achievement). Further, they identified how there was a need for teamwork and harmony to achieve the required performance objectives. This suggests that a level of trust would be needed between team members.

A number of factors have been identified to contribute to effective functioning on team performance in sports such as group cohesion, shared identity, role clarity, shared mental models, and willingness to allocate individual effort for the team performance.^8,9 Another emerging factor that has garnered increased attention within organizational psychology research is team trust. Trust is often referred in the research literature as a psychological state characterized by positive expectations regarding others’ intentions and behavior. ¹⁰ Much of the trust research largely focuses on dyadic relationships within the workplace, meaning relationships between two parties at the individual level.^10–12 When exploring trust at the team level, the phenomenon must be understood beyond what occurs in one-on-one relationships. ¹³ In teams, members face more complex and multifaceted social dynamics, which impose specific requirements on how trust is developed, maintained, and challenged within a group.^14,15 This means that team members have to navigate a wide array of social dynamics such as information sharing, conflict management, role distribution, and social exclusion.^16,17 Breuer et al. ¹³ defined team trust as: “the shared willingness of the team members to be vulnerable to the actions of the other team members based on the shared expectation that the other team members will perform particular actions that are important to the team, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control the other team members” (p. 5). Here, team trust is understood as a shared perception among team members, with mutual expectations that members will act in the team's best interest and make themselves vulnerable to each other. Breuer et al. ¹³ created a taxonomy of team trust with key overarching factors including ability, benevolence, predictability, integrity and transparency. In the research literature, team trust has been found to be a crucial factor for team effectiveness and performance. ¹⁸ Team trust has also been shown to enhance communication, coordination, and problem-solving under stress. ¹⁹

These studies investigating team trust have consistently focused on the workplace, virtual teams, or general organizational structures.^11,13,20 However, there is some research within sport psychology and particularly in road cycling that has demonstrated that trust among riders in a team constitutes a central prerequisite for effective cooperation in the team by promoting coordination, willingness to sacrifice, and tactical adaptation in competitive situations.^21,22 Nevertheless, there is a lack of research examining the characteristics of team trust in cycling and more specifically women's professional road cycling. The study specifically investigated woman professional cyclists’ understanding and experience of team trust in road cycling, focusing on antecedents and consequences of team trust.

Method

Data analysis

The audio recorded interviews were transcribed into written material comprising 99 pages with 1.5 line spacing and a total of 53,539 words. The analysis was conducted with an abductive approach, through continuous interchange between empirical findings and theoretical perspectives.^10,13,18 This approach facilitates emphasizing an open and exploratory process to identify unexpected insights and illuminate underlying mechanisms. Our analysis was grounded in the data while we simultaneously used theoretical concepts and literature on team trust to deepen our analytic interpretations. More specifically, we used Breuer's et al. ¹³ taxonomy of team trust where they identified ability, benevolence, predictability, integrity, and transparency to influence our view of the data. This analysis process recognizes the researcher's role as an interpretative agent in the construction of knowledge, where subjectivity and interpretation are integral parts of the analysis process. ²⁶ The data material was analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis ²⁷ which unfolds six phases: 1) familiarization, 2) coding, 3) generating initial themes, 4) theme revisions, 5) defining and naming themes, 6) reporting. Initially, the first author transcribed the interview, and together with last author read, and re-read the interview data to get a general sense of the data material. In the following stages (2–4), codes and themes were crafted through synthesis of deductive and inductive approaches. Initial coding was informed by the research aims, while remaining open to new patterns and meanings generated inductively from the data. We generated the following three themes: (a) Description of team trust in cycling, (b) Antecedents to team trust in cycling (c) Consequences of team trust in cycling. Within each theme, the first author identified initial codes and themes through a combined inductive and deductive approach to best encapsulate the meanings articulated by the participants, subsequently presenting them to the last author who functioned as a critical friend. ²⁸

Recognizing the inherently reflective nature of coding, which mirrors the researcher's subjectivity, Braun and Clark ²⁹ highlighted that researchers’ values, beliefs, and professional experiences significantly influence their interpretation of data and the formation of themes. Consequently, reflexive thematic analysis inherently acknowledges the researchers’ subjectivity in their engagement with both the data and the analytic process. In this endeavor, we organizing codes into themes (see Figure 1). In the following phases, the researchers met several times to develop a shared interpretation of the data, recognizing that these findings reflect their perspectives rather than representing the only definitive solution. ²⁹ In this process, segments of the data were coded with descriptive and interpretive labels that captured participants’ meanings and experiences related to the research focus (e.g., “Trust also involves the willingness to do the task and make sacrifices. We had a teammate who was very, very good at helping others, and she always kept her promises to others”(I-6), was initially described as the subtheme helping behavior, and ended up based on the discussion and agreement in the research team as an example of the subtheme benevolence). The subthemes subsequently organized into main themes (i.e., Personal Characteristics), following phases 3–5 of theme development, refinement, and naming. ³⁰ Finaly, the reporting phase was completed by all the authors. ²⁷ During this process the team identified outcomes or ‘consequences’ of team trust, such as social and emotional relationship development, improvement in team dynamics and individual and team performance. This allowed for the development of a thematic model of the antecedents and consequences of team trust within professional women cyclists (see Figure 1). To ensure the anonymity of the participants, team names, places, and names of individuals were removed or replaced with pseudonyms. As the interviews were conducted in Norwegian, all the quotes presented have been translated by the authors, who translated the Norwegian quotes into English, and was translated back to Norwegian to explore potential differences in the content and meaning of the quotes. ³¹ One of the authors was also an English native speaker and the research group including this English native speaker discussed the content and meaning of each quote.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 1.

A thematic map of team trust in female professional cycling teams.

Results

Based on the analysis, we generated a thematic model to illustrate how woman professional cyclist experienced team trust, which factors they perceived contribute to team trust, and finally consequences they perceived team trust can have for the team (Figure 1). As can be seen in Figure 1 the antecedent to team trust is divided into the following two themes: Personal characteristics, and Team factors. Personal characteristics consist of three subthemes: Competence with the themes of skills and experience, Benevolence with the themes of reliability and respect, and Integrity with the themes of work ethic, acknowledgment, and openness. The dimension Team Factors consist of the following two subthemes: Team relationships with the themes of care, inclusion, and well-being, and Team structure with the themes of common goals and strategy, task dependency, and communication. The consequences of team trust are divided into the following three dimensions: Relationships with the themes of emotional bonds and respect, Team dynamics with the themes of collaboration, team atmosphere and communication, and Performance with the themes of task focus, motivation, and results.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate woman professional road cyclist perception and experience with the phenomenon team trust. Using a reflexive thematic analysis, ²⁷ we developed a model (Figure 1) inspired by the work of and Breuer et al. ¹³ and Mayer et al. ¹⁰

Cycling competence, benevolence towards teammates, and personal integrity were identified as personal characteristics that promote team trust. The riders assess the credibility of teammates over time, based on experiences and an overall impression of how these qualities are demonstrated in specific situations, both on and off the cycling context. This illustrates that trust is developed through both rational and emotional processes, and supports previous research.^10,13,32 When a rider consistently demonstrates skills, accountability, and loyalty in various situations, it strengthens others’ belief that the individual will act in the team's best interest. Similar findings were evident in Fulmer and Gelfand, ¹⁴ which claim that past experiences and social context influence how competence, benevolence, and integrity are interpreted in practice.

Cycling competence consists of skills and experience and refers to the riders’ technical and tactical abilities, as well as the experience one has from various race situations. The riders describe a teammate as competent when she has extensive experience and has shown good performance over time. This is not a surprising finding, as research literature shows that trust develops through repeated interactions where reliability and competence are demonstrated over time, where experience sets expectations for future behavior. ¹²

Benevolence towards teammates manifests in the riders’ perception of reliability and respect within the team. In line with theory, benevolence concerns whether a person is perceived to have good intentions and acts in accordance with others’ interests. ¹⁰ When teammates behave reliably and respectfully in race situations, this helps to strengthen team trust. The riders perceive such actions as supportive of the team's strategy and goals, while also being interpreted as expressions of care, a desire for common success, and recognition of others’ contributions and roles. This supports the findings of Breuer et al., ¹³ which emphasize that emotional care and loyalty are behaviors that demonstrate benevolence and contribute to promoting the development of team trust.

The riders assess team members’ personal integrity through qualities such as high effort for the team, acknowledgment for teammates, and sharing information in the team. When a teammate is consistent and predictable in her actions, she is perceived as credible and loyal to the team's shared values. This aligns with the trust model presented by Mayer et al., ¹⁰ where integrity is understood as a consistency between actions, words, and values. Putting in maximum effort for the team's benefit, without the effort being based on selfish concerns, signals a strong internal commitment to the team's values, which promotes team trust in the cycling team.^13,17,33 The results also align with previous research, which has shown that acknowledging others’ efforts contributes to strengthening team spirit and collective identity, which, in turn, increases trust in the team.^12,18 The role of, for example, a domestique rider involves sacrificing one's own results for the team's benefit, where one rarely receives visible rewards in the form of placement or recognition. ³⁴ The participants describe that it becomes especially important that their contributions become visible through praise and gratitude, and that this is crucial for developing and maintaining team trust. When riders present openness as a central prerequisite for trust, it implies that they consider a teammate more credible when she shows openness by sharing personal thoughts and ideas, uncertainties, and experiences, both on and off the cycling arena. These findings parallel previous research, which shows that openness through information sharing, and emotional availability allows for mutual understanding and strengthens the relational bond among members. ¹³

The results point to six team dynamic factors as central prerequisites for team trust in a cycling team. These factors are understood as both relational and structural, reflecting the complexity of how trust is developed. The findings indicate that team trust not only developed through interpersonal relationships and cognitive evaluations, but also the organizational frameworks present in the team.^13,18 Three following different team relational trust factors was: care for teammates, inclusion of teammates, and humor and seriousness were highlighted as significant for developing team trust.

Care for teammates refers to the experience of emotional support, in the form of being seen, heard, and appreciated. In a cycling team, riders spend much of the year together, both during races and training camps. ²¹ and the need for safety, emotional support, and relational continuity becomes prominent. Experience of care may increase the bonding between the riders, and such makes teammates more inclined to engage, share information, and take risks, described as psychological safety. ³⁵ Psychological safety has been claimed as a key component for developing effective and well-functioning teams^35,36 and has similarity with team trust but they are not entirely the same. When team trust refers to expectations about others’ future actions, psychological safety relates to the experience of being able to express oneself freely in the team. ³⁷ More specifically it may well be that a rider feels safe asking questions during a race evaluation but still be unsure if teammates will support her during a race, which is one essential difference between psychological safety and team trust.

Inclusion of teammates refers to riders’ experiences of belonging, being part of a community, and being included both socially and athletically. When riders feel they are “in the right place,” it may strengthen their attachment to the team and contribute to increased team trust. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have presented the connection between inclusion and trust.^32,38 A possible mechanism for this relationship can be, according to social identity theory, that experiencing a shared social identity will create a sense of belonging (we-felling) to the group, and it will influence team members’ perceptions and behaviors (e.g., increased team trust perceptions and behaviors).

According to the results of the study, team relationship factors are closely related to well-being. An indication of high well-being in the cycling team is when riders feel they can be themselves and “can joke and talk about anything.” Furthermore, well-being is promoted by the feeling of safety, inclusion, and appreciation, making riders more inclined to trust each other, share information, and support team goals. This illustrates that well-being, safety, and trust strengthen each other in a mutual process, as previous research has also shown.^35,39,40

The structural team factors contain common team goals and strategies, cycling as a team sport, and reflection culture in the team. A shared understanding of goals and strategy makes it easier to predict what others will do, and such reduce uncertainty within the team. ¹³ In a cycling team, roles are often clearly defined in anticipation of competitions, and a common strategy helps create clear expectations of what each rider is supposed to do. This supports previous research, which also refers to common goals and strategy as a central prerequisite for team trust, supporting previous research.^16,18

In cycling, the course of the competition is already agreed upon through predetermined strategies, where the riders have different tasks, all crucial for the team to achieve its goals, ⁶ appears to be a decisive factor for the development of team trust. In road cycling, riders rarely have the opportunity to directly monitor each other's actions during the race. Riders must trust that teammates complete their tasks in line with the plan, without immediate confirmation. ³⁴ This differs from more traditional team sports, where athletes can observe and correct each other in real-time, representing a trust-based vulnerability. Mayer et al. ¹⁰ support this, where the willingness to be vulnerable is not based on control but on expectations. The results build on previous studies, which identify that a high degree of dependence among team members reinforces the need for trust, as individual performance is closely tied to the group's success.^13,16,18

Clear and continuous communication before and after races is important for the team's strategy to be interpreted equally by everyone. This clarifies individual roles and how they relate to the team's collective goals. This is particularly relevant in continental teams without access to radio transmission during competitions, thereby limiting the possibility of continuous tactical communication during the race.^6,21 Open and strategic communication during tactical meetings and evaluations promotes predictability within the team, which, in turn, contributes to developing team trust. This is supported by Breuer and colleagues ¹³ and Costa and colleagues, ¹⁸ who point out that information sharing contributes to a trust-based psychological climate.

The positive consequences that were generated in the results align closely with previous research.^{13,16,18,21,22} Firstly, team trust contributes strengthen the bonding between the teammates with bond that characterized by emotional closeness and mutual respect. Furthermore, it created a “culture” where teammates wish each other well, show mutual loyalty, and support each other on and off the cycling arena. Several researchers have identified similar patterns, where trust is associated with strong emotional bonds, social support, and a stronger emotional community.^13,32,39 Secondly, the participants emphasized team trust contributes to coordinated cooperation, a positive team environment, and open communication. They further stated it increase team members responsibility and their willingness to defend and represent the team. Similar finding is also prevalent in former research showing that trust leads to better flow in both cooperation, coordination, and communication.^18,40 It also aligns with the findings of Salmon and colleagues ²² and Netland and colleagues, ²¹ which identify trust as a central support mechanism for effective teamwork.

Thirdly, and perhaps most important team trust also appears to have an important function for the cycling team's performance, by strengthening the riders’ task focus, motivation, results, and effort. The trust that teammates will do their part reduces the need for worry and control, making it easier to concentrate on one's own tasks. Such safety and predictability create an environment that enables targeted and coordinated collaboration toward shared goals. The results align with previous research, showing that trust promotes both self-regulation and effective interaction.^13,16,32 The team's performance also improves, as team trust enhances riders’ motivation and effort. A mutual trust relationship within the team contributes to strengthening personal commitment and a desire to contribute, both in training and competition. ²¹ These findings are well aligned with Carmeli and Spreitzer, ³⁸ who point out that team trust helps promote a sense of connection and accountability, which strengthens members’ motivation and commitment.

Limitations of the study

The main limitation in the present study is the qualitative data collection with only one interview with the participants. Taking a longitudinal approach to team trust can allow for a more in depth understanding of how trust is developed, maintained or even lost throughout a season. Although it is hoped readers can take their own interpretations from the findings ²⁷ (naturalistic generalizability), we acknowledge that the sample is quite homogenous (gender, sport, nationality, performance level) and future research may wish to consider wider factors.

Practical implications and future consideration

This study provides nuanced empirical insights into how team trust is understood and experienced in professional woman cycling teams and can be used by coaches and leaders to strengthen trust-promoting practices. Although the study is context-dependent, it points to factors likely relevant in other performance-oriented team environments. The findings may, therefore, have transferability to other sports and performance environments, and we encourage future research to consider our findings within their work. The results show that trust is perceived as a dynamic, multidimensional, and relational phenomenon, influencing how trust is assessed and developed in practice. Measures to enhance team trust must, therefore, may be tailored to the team's needs. For example, in a continental team without radio transmission, it becomes particularly important for coaches and leaders to establish structure and safety before competitions, through strategic planning, role clarification, and tactical meetings. The results confirm previous research, which shows that team trust enhances cooperation, coordination, and performance, therefore, targeted efforts should be made to establish and maintain practices that build trust in everyday cycling and competition situations.

Further research should explore how team trust shapes itself in other areas of cycling, such as men's teams, WorldTour teams, or across different cultural contexts. There is also a need for longitudinal studies that can explore how the phenomenon develops over time (e.g., over a season or changes in team configurations), and in response to strains such as injuries, defeats, or conflicts. Simultaneously, there is a need for further research investigating how team trust is shaped and developed in interaction with other key stakeholders (e.g., coaches, sports directors, and support staff).

Conclusion

The purpose of the study was to investigate team trust in road cycling through the understandings and experiences of woman cyclists from various continental teams. Women's cycling research is scarce and this study sought to shed light on the interactions that are important for trust and coherence to occur within a cycling team. The findings show that team trust in cycling teams is perceived as a complex phenomenon and supports several other studies in this field. The main results showed team trust to be a relational and multidimensional phenomenon, shaped by assessments of individual characteristics, as well as relational and structural team factors, indicating that teams characterized by high levels of trust exhibit mutual commitment, emotional support, and predictability. Since this study explores team trust within a unique competitive context not previously instigated, we consider the concrete descriptions to offer novel, distinctive, and practically relevant insights into the concept of team trust. Nevertheless, the findings alignment with previous research, indicates the robustness of the concept of team trust while simultaneously enhancing the ecological validity of the present results.