As our understanding of the pathobiology and natural history of the various forms of interstitial lung disease (ILD) has evolved, so have our approaches to treating this heterogeneous group of lung disorders. The earliest pharmacologic agents used to treat various forms of ILD were corticosteroids, and corticosteroids are currently the mainstay of therapy for many forms of ILD. However, it has become clear that corticosteroids and other anti-inflammatory agents lack efficacy for many forms of ILD, such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), and newer therapies that are in clinical trials target the fibrogenic process and/or secondary pulmonary hypertension (PH) that is present in various forms of fibrotic lung disease. Novel therapies, such as the use of biologic agents (antibodies and cell cycle inhibitors) or stem cell therapies will undoubtedly evolve as new research is performed and clinical trials are undertaken. Lung transplantation remains an option for advanced lung disease that is progressive and unresponsive to non-surgical therapies.
Akira, M., Hmada, H., Sakatani, M., Kobayashi, C., Nishioka, M. and Tamamoto, S. (1997) CT finding during accelerated deterioration in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Roentgenol168(1): 79-83.
2.
Alber, A.J. and Samet, J.M. (2003) Epidemiology of lung cancer. Chest123(1 suppl.): 21S-49S.
3.
Alberts, C., Van der Mark, T.W. and Jansen, H.M. (1995) Inhaled budesonide in pulmonary sarcoidosis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur Respir J8(5): 682-688.
4.
Allen, J. (2006) Acute eosinophilic pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med27(2): 142-147.
5.
Alton, E.W.F.W., Johnson, M. and Turner-Warwick, M. (1989) Advanced cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: preliminary report on treatment with cyclosporine A. Respiratory Medicine83(4): 277-279.
6.
Ambrosini, V., Cancellieri, A., Chilosi, M., Zompatori, M., Trisolini, R., Saragoni, L. et al. (2003) Acute exacerbation of iodiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: report of a series. Eur Respir J22(5): 821-826.
7.
Antoniou, K.M., Mamoulaki, M., Malagari, K., Kritikos, H.D., Bouros, D., Siafakas, N. et al. (2007) Infliximab therapy in pulmonary fibrosis associated with collagen vascular disease. Clin Exper Rheum25(1): 23-28.
8.
Antoniou, K.M., Nicholson, A.G., Dimadi, M., Malagari, K., Latsi, P., Rapti, A. et al. (2006) Long-term clinical effects of interferon gamma-1b and colchicines in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J28(3): 496-504.
9.
Arata, A., Nuwika, T., Tsuboi, E., Suga, M., Abe, S., Nakata, K. et al. (2005) Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pirfenidone in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med171(9): 1040-1047.
10.
ATS/ERS International Consensus Statement. ( 2000) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: diagnosis and treatment . Am J Respir Crit Care Med262: 646-664.
11.
Barbato, A. and Panizzolo, C. (2000) Chronic interstitial lung disease in children. Paediatr Respir Rev1(2): 172-178.
12.
Baughman, R.P., Drent, M., Kavuru, M., Judson, M.A., Costabel, U., du Bois, R. et al. (2006) Infliximab therapy in patients with chronic sarcoidosis and pulmonary involvement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med174(7): 795-802.
13.
Baughman, R.P. and Lower, E.E. (1992) Use of intermittent intravenous cyclophosphamide for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest102(4): 1090-1094.
14.
Baughman, R.P. and Lower, E.E. (2001) Infliximab for refractory sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis18(4): 70-74.
15.
Baughman, R.P. and Lower, E.E. (1997) Steroid-sparing alternative treatments for sarcoidosis . Clin Chest Med18(1): 853-864.
16.
Baughman, R.P., Winget, D.B. and Lower, E.E. (2000) Methotrexate is steroid sparing in acute sarcoidosis: results of a double blind, randomized trial. Sarcoidosis Vac Diffuse Lung Dis17(1): 60-66.
17.
Best, A.C., Meng, J., Lynch, A.M., Bozic, C.M., Miller, C., Grunwad, G.K. et al. (2008) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: physiologic tests, quantitative CT indexes, and CT visual scores as predictors of mortality . Radiology246(3): 935-940.
18.
Bissler, J.J., McCormack, F.X., Young, L.R., Elwing, J.M., Chuck, G., Leonard, J.M. et al. (2008) Sirolimus for angiomyolipoma in tuberous sclerosis complex or lymphangioleiomyomatosis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(2): 140-151.
19.
Bjoraker, J.A., Ryu, J.H., Edwin, M.K., Myers, J.L., Tazelaar, H.D., Schroeder, D.R. et al. (1998) Prognostic significance of hisopathologic subsets in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med157(1): 199-203.
Brown, C.H. and Turner-Warwick, M. (1971) The treatment of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis with immunosuppressant drugs. Quart J Med40(158): 289-302.
22.
Buhaescu, I., Izzedine, H. and Covic, A. (2006) Sirolimus - challenging current perspectives. Ther Drug Monit28(5): 577-584.
23.
Camus, P., Fanton, A., Bonniaud, P., Camus, C. and Foucher, P. (2004) Interstitial lung disease induced by drugs and radiation. Respiration71(4): 301-326.
24.
Carrington, C.B., Gaensler, E.A., Coutu, R.E., Fitzgerald, M.X. and Gupta, R.G. (1978) Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. New Eng J of Med298(15): 801-809.
25.
Collard, H.R., Anstrom, K.J., Schwarz, M.I. and Zisman, D.A. (2007) Sildenafil improves walk distance in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest131(3): 897-899.
26.
Collard, H.R., Ryu, J.H., Douglas, W.W., Schwarz, M.I., Rurran-Everett, D., King, T.E. et al. (2004) Combined corticosteroid and cyclophosphamide therapy does not alter survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest125(6): 2169-2174.
Coultas, D.B., Zumwalt, R.E., Black, W.C. and Sobonya, R.E. (1994) The epidemiology of interstitial lung diseases . Am J Respir Crit Care Med150(4): 967-972.
29.
Demedts, M., Behr, J., Buhl, R., Costabel, U., Dekhuijzen, R., Jansen, H. et al. (2005) High-dose acetylcysteine in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. New Engl J Med353(21): 2229-2242.
30.
Demedts, M., Wells, A.U., Anto, J.M., Costabel, U., Hubbard, R., Cullinan, P. et al. (2001) Interstitial lung diseases: an epidemiological overview. Eur Respir J18(Suppl. 32): 2S-16S.
31.
Demeter, S.L. (1988) Myocardial sarcoidosis unresponsive to steroids. Treatment with cyclophosphamide. Chest94(1): 202-203.
Dheda, K., Lalloo, U.G., Cassina, B. and Mody, G.M. (2004) Experience with azathioprine in systemic sclerosis associated with interstitial lung disease. Clin Rheumatol23(4): 306-309.
34.
Doty, J.D., Mazur, J.E. and Judson, M.A. (2003) Treatment of corticosteroid-resistant neurosarcoidosis with a short-course cyclophosphamide regimen. Chest124(5): 2023-2026.
35.
Doty, J.D., Mazur, J.E. and Judson, M.A. (2005) Treatment of sarcoidosis with infliximab. Chest127(3): 1064-1071.
36.
Douglas, W.W., Ryu, J.H., Swensen, S.J., Offord, K.P., Schroeder, D.R., Caron, G.M. et al. (1998) Colchicine versus prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med158(1): 220-225.
37.
Douglas, W.W., Ryu, J.L. and Schroeder, D.F. (2000) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: impact of oxygen and colchicine, prednisone, or no therapy on survival. Am J Respir Cri Care Med161(4 Pt 1): 1172-1178.
38.
Douglas, W.W., Ryu, J.L., Swensen, S.J., Offord, K.P., Schroeder, D.R., Caron, G.M. et al. (1998) Colchicine versus prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a randomized prospective study. Member of the lung Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med158(1): 220-225.
associated interstitial lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med164(7): 1182-1185.
41.
DuBois, R.M., Greenhalgh, P.M., Southcott, A.M., Johnson, N.M. and Harris, T.A. (1999) Randomized trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in chronic stable pulmonary sarcoidosis: a pilot study. Eur Respir J13(6): 1345-1350.
42.
Eiser, A.R. and Shanies, H.M. (1994) Treatment of lupus interstitial lung disease with intravenous cyclophosphamide. Arthritis & Rheumatism37(3): 429-431.
43.
Erkkila, S., Froset, B., Hellstrom, P.E., Katliokallio, K., Taskinen, E., Vilajanen, A. et al. (1988) Inhaled budesonide influences cellular and biochemical abnormalities in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1988; 5(2): 106-110.
44.
Finckh, A. and Gabay, C. (2008) At the horizon of innovative therapy in rheumatology: new biologic agents. Curr Opin Rheumatol20(3): 269-275.
45.
Flaherty, K.R. and Martinez, F.J. (2006) Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med27(6): 652-658.
46.
Flaherty, K.R., Mumford, J.A., Murray, S., Kazerooni, E.A., Gross, B.H., Colby, T.V. et al. (2003) Prognostic implications of physiologic and radiographic changes in idiopathic interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;168(5): 543-548.
47.
Flint, A. (1868) A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Medicine . PhiladelphiaHenry C. Lea, p. 193.
48.
Gay, S.E., Kazerooni, E.A., Toews, G.B., Lynch, 3rd J.P., Gross, B.H., Cascade, P.N. et al. (1998) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: predicting response to therapy and survival. Am J Respir Crit Care Med157(4 Pt 1): 1063-1072.
49.
Gebrino, A.J., Goss, C.H. and Molitor, J.A. (2008) Effect of mycophenolate mofetil on pulmonary function in scleroderma-associated interstitial lung disease. Chest133(2): 455-460.
50.
Gehr, J., Maier, K., Degenkolb, B., Krombach, F. and Vogelmeier, C. (1997) . Antioxidative and clinical effects of high-dose N-acetylcysteine in fibrosing alveolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med156(6): 1897-1901.
51.
Gottlieb, J., Szangolies, J., Koehnlein, T., Golphon, H., Simon, A., Welte, T. et al. (2008) Long-term azithromycin for bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome after lung transplantation. Transplantation85(1): 36-41.
52.
Gruhn, W.B. and Diaz-Buxo, J.A. (1987) Cyclosporine treatment of steroid resistant interstitial pneumonitis associate with dermatomyositis/polymyositis. J Rheumatol14(5): 1045-1047.
53.
Hargreaves, M.R., Mowat, A.G. and Benson, M.K. (1992) Acute pneumonitis associated with low dose methotrexate treatment for rheumatoid arthritis: report of five cases and review of published reports. Thorax47(8): 628-633.
54.
Herbert, F.A., Nahmias, B.B., Gaensler, E.A. and MacMahon, H.E. (1962) Pathophysiology of interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. Report of 19 cases and follow-up with corticosteroids. Arch Intern Med110: 628-648.
55.
Hof, D.G., Hof, P.C. and Godfrey, W.A. (1996) Long-term use of Azathioprine as a steroid-sparing treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med153: A870.
56.
Holgate, S.T., Glass, D.N., Haslam, P., Maini, R.N. and Turner-Warwick, M. (1976) Respiratory involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: A clinical and immunological study. Clin Exp Immunol24(3): 385-395.
57.
Hoyles, R.K., Ellis, R.W., Wellsbury, J., Lees, B., Newlands, P., Goh, N.S. et al. (2006) A multicenter, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of corticosteroids and intravenous cyclophosphamide follwed by oral azathioprine for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis in scleroderma. Arthritis & Rheumatism54(12): 3962-3970.
58.
Ito, I., Nagl, S., Kitalchi, M., Nicholson, A.G., Johkoh, T., Noma, S. et al. (2005) Pulmonary manifestations of primary Sjogren's syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med171(6): 632-638.
59.
Jederlinic, P.F., Siciliam, L. and Gaensler, E.A. (1988) Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia-a report of 19 case and a review of the literature. Medicine67(3): 154-162.
60.
Johnson, M.A., Kwan, S., Snell, N.J.C., Nunn, A.J., Darbyshire, J.H. and Turner-Warwick, M. (1989) Randomised controlled trial comparing prednisolone alone with cyclophosphamide and low dose prednisolone in combination in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax44(4): 280-288.
61.
Kahan, B.D. (2004) Sirolimus-based immunosuppression: present state of the art. J Nephrol17(Suppl. 8): S32-S39.
62.
Kalra, S., Utz, J.P. and Ryu, J.H. (2003) Interferon Gamma-1b therapy for advanced idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Mayo Clin Proc78(9): 1082-1087.
63.
Kim, D.S., Park, J.H., Park, B.K., Lee, J.S., Nicholson, A.G. and Colby, T. (2006) Acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: frequency and clinical features. Eur Respir J27(1): 143-150.
64.
King, Jr, T.E., Safrin, S., Starko, K.M., Brown, KK, Noble, PW, Raghu, G. et al. (2005) Analyses of efficacy end points in a controlled trial of interferon-gamma for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest127(1): 171-177.
65.
King, T.E., Behr, J., Brown, K.K., du Bois, R.M., Lancaster, L. and Andrade, J.A. (2007) BUILD-1: a randomized placebo-controlled trial of bosentan in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med177: 75-81.
66.
King, T.E. and Mortenson, R.L. (1992) Cryptogenic organizing pneumonitis. The North American experience. Chest102(Suppl. 1): 8S-13S.
67.
Knyazhitskiy, A., Masson, R.G., Corkey, R. and Joiner, J. (2008) Beneficial response to macrolide antibiotic in a patient with desquamative interstitial pneumonia refractory to corticosteroid therapy. Chest134(1): 185-187.
68.
Kubo, H., Nakayama, K., Yanai, M., Suzuki, T., Yamay, M., Watanabe, M. et al. (2005) Anticoagulant therapy for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest128(3): 1475-1482.
69.
Lama, V.N., Flaherty, K.R., Toews, G.B., Colby, T.V., Travis, W.D., Long, O. et al. (2003) Prognostic value of desaturation during a 6-minute walk test in idiopathic interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med168(9): 1084-1090.
70.
Lamblin, C., Bergoin, C., Saelens, T. and Wallaert, B. (2001) Interstitial lung disease in collagen vascular disease. Eur Respir J18(Suppl. 32): 69S-80S.
71.
Liebow, A.A., Steer, A. and Billingsley, J.G. (1965) Desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Am J Med39: 369-404.
72.
Liossis, S.N.C., Bounas, A. and Andonopoulos, A.P. (2006) Mycophenolate mofetil as first-line treatment improves clinically evident early scleroderma lung disease . Rheumatology45(8): 1005-1008.
73.
Livingstone, J.L., Lewis, J.G., Reid, L. and Jefferson, K.E. (1964) Diffuse interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. A clinical, radiological, and pathological study based on 45 patients. Q J Med33: 71-103.
74.
Malik, S.W., Myers, J.L., DeRemee, R.A. and Specks, U. (1996) Lung toxicity associated with cyclophosphamide use. Two distinct patterns. Am J Respir Crit Care Med154(6 Pt 1): 1851-1856.
75.
Mapel, D.W., Samet, J.M. and Coultas, D.B. (1996) Corticosteroids and treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: past, present, and future. Chest110(4): 1058-1067.
76.
Marder, W. and McCune, J.W. (2007) Advances in Immunosuppressive Therapy. Semin Respir Crit Care Med28(4): 398-417.
77.
Marques, L.J., Zheng, L., Poulakis, N., Guzman, J. and Costabel, U. (1999) Pentoxifylline inhibits TNF-alpha production from human alveolar macrophages. Am J Respir Crit Care Med159(2): 508-511.
78.
Meyer, K.C. (2007) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, part 2: the current approach to treatment. J Respir Dis28(8): 331-338.
79.
Meyer, K.C. (2003) Interferon gamma-1b therapy for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: is the cart before the horse? Mayo Clin Proc78(9): 1073-1075.
80.
Meyer, K.C. (2007) Bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis and management of interstitial lung diseases. Clinical Pulmonary Medicine14(3): 148-155.
81.
Moolman, J.A., Bardin, P.G., Rossouw, D.J. and Joubert, J.R. (1991) Cyclosporin as a treatment for interstitial lung disease of unknown aetiology. Thorax46(8): 592-595.
82.
Müller-Quernheim, J., Kienast, K., Held, M. and Pfeifer, S. (1999) Costabel. Treatment of chronic sarcoidosis with an azathioprine/prednisolone regimen. Eur Respir J14(5): 1117-1122.
83.
Munster, T., Gibbs, J.P., Shen, D., Baethge, B.A., Botstein, G.R., Caldwell, J. et al. (2002) Hydroxychloroquine concentration-response relationships in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum46(6): 1460-1469.
84.
Nagao, T., Nagai, S., Hiramoto, Y., Hamada, K., Shigematsu M., Hayashi, M. et al. (2002) Serial evaluation of high-resolution computed tomography findings in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis in usual interstitial pneumonia. Respiration69(5): 413-419.
85.
Naughton, M., Fahy, J. and Fitzgerald, M.X. (1993) Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia. A long-term Follow-up of 12 patients. Chest103(1): 162-165.
86.
Pacheco, Y., Marechal, C., Marechal, F., Biot, N. and Perrin Fayolle, M. (1985) Azathioprine treatment of chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis2(2): 107-113.
87.
Papiris, S.A., Tsonis, I.A. and Moutsopoulos, H.M. (2007) Sjogren's syndrome. Semin Respir Crit Care Med28(28): 459-472.
88.
Paramothayan, N.S. and Jones, P.W. (2000) Corticosteroids for pulmonary sarcoidosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD001114.
89.
Paramothayan, S. and Jones, P.W. (2002) Corticosteroid therapy in pulmonary sarcoidosis . JAMA287(10): 1301-1307.
90.
Paramothayan, S., Lasserson, T.J. and Walters, E.H. (2006) Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic therapy for pulmonary sarcoidosis. Cochrance Database Syst Rev 3: CD003536.
91.
Peikert, T., Daniels, C.E., Beebe, T.J., Meyer, K.C. and Ryu, J.H. (2008) Assessment of current practice in the diagnosis and therapy of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Respir Med102: 1342-1348.
92.
Peter, S.G., McDougall, J.C., Douglas, W.W., Coles, D.T. and DeRemee, R.A. (1993) Colchicine in the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis . Chest103(1): 101-104.
93.
Philit, F., Etienne-Mastroianni, B., Parrot, A., Guerin, C., Robert, D., Cordier, J.F. et al. (2002) Idiopathic actue eosinophilic pneumonia: a study of 22 patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med166(9): 1235-1239.
94.
Pietinalho, A., Tukiainen, P., Haahtela, T., Persson, T. and Selroos, O. (1999) Oral prednisolone followed by inhaled budesonid in newly diagnosed pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest116(2): 424-431.
95.
Pope-Harman, A.L., Davis, W.B., Christoforidis, A.J., Allen, E.D. and Allen, J.N. (1996) Acute eosinophilic pneumonia: A summary of fifteen cases and review of the literature. Medicine75(6): 334-342.
96.
Puttick, M.P., Klinkfogg, A.V., Chalmers, A. and Ostrow, D.N. (1995) Treatment of progressive rheumatoid interstitial lung disease with cyclosporine. J Rheumatol22(11): 2164-2165.
97.
Raghu, G., Brown, K.K., Bradford, W.Z., Starko, K., Noble, P.W., Schwartz, D.A. et al. (2004) A placebo-controlled trial of interferon gamma-1b in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. New England Journal of Medicine350(2): 125-133.
98.
Raghu, G., Depaso, W.J., Cain, K., Hammar, S.P., Wetzel, C.E., Dreis, D.F. et al. (1991) Azathioprine combined with prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a prospective double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am Rev Respir Dis144(2): 291-296.
99.
Raghu, G., Weycker, D., Edelsberg, J., Bradford, W.Z. and Oster, G. (2006) Incidence and prevalence of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med174(7): 810-816.
100.
Read, J. (1958) The pathogenesis of the Hamman-Rich syndrome. A review from the standpoint of possible allergic etiology. Am Rev Tuberc78(3): 353-367.
101.
Richeldi, L., Davies, H.R., Ferrara, G. and Franco, F. (2003) Corticosteroids for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3, Art. no. CD002880. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD00202880.
102.
Roschmann, R.A. and Rothenberg, R.J. (1987) Pulmonary fibrosis in rheumatoid arthritis: a review of clinical features and therapy. Semin Arthritis Rheum16(3): 174-185.
103.
Rossi, G.A., Bitterman, P.B., Rennard, S.I., Ferrans, V.J. and Crystal, R.G. (1985) Evidence for chronic inflammation as a component of the interstitial lung disease associated with progressive systemic sclerosis . Am Rev Respir Dis131(4): 612-617.
104.
Rubin, B.K. and Henke, M. (2004) Immunomodulatory activity and effectiveness of macrolides in chronic airway disease. Chest125(2 suppl): 70S-78S.
105.
Rubin, E.H. and Lubliner, R. (1957) The Hamman-Rich syndrome: a review of the literature and analysis of 15 cases. Medicine36(4): 397-463.
Schnabel, A., Reuter, M., Biederer, J.R.C. and Gross, W.L. (2003) Interstitial lung disease in polymyositis and dermatomyositis: clinical course and response to treatment. Semin Arthritis Rheum32(5): 273-284.
108.
Scott, D.G. and Bacon, P.A. (1980) Response to methotrexate in fibrosing alveolitis associated with connective tissue disease. Thorax35(10): 725-731.
109.
Selman, M., Carrillo, G., Salas, J., Padilla, R.P., Perez-Chavira, R., Sansores, R. et al. (1998) Colchicine, D-penicillamine, and prednisone in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a controlled clinical trial . Chest114(2): 507-512.
110.
Serrano-Mollar, A., Nacher, M., Gay-Jordi, G., Closa, D., Xaubet, A. and Bulbena, O. (2007) Intratracheal transplantation of alveolar type II cells reverses bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med176(12): 1261-1268.
111.
Sigal, L.H. (2007) Basic science for the clinician 46. Molecular biologic agents in development: possible clinical consequences to rheumatologists. J Clin Rheumatol13(5): 286-290.
112.
Stack, B.H.R., Choo-Kang, Y.F.J. and Heard, B.E. (1972) The prognosis of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis . Thorax27(5): 535-542.
113.
Steele, M.P. and Brown, K.K. (2007) Genetic predisposition to respiratory diseases: infiltrative lung diseases. Respiration74(6): 601-608.
114.
Stover, D.E. and Mangino, D. (2005) Macrolides: a treatment alternative for bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia? Chest128(5): 3611-3617.
115.
Sullivan, W.D., Hurst, D.M. and Harmon, C.E. (1984) A prospective evaluation emphasizing pulmonary involvement in patients with mixed connective tissue disease. Medicine63(2): 92-107.
116.
Swigris, J.J., Olson, A.L., Fischer, A., Lynch, D.A., Cosgrove, G.P., Frankel, S.K. et al. (2006) Mycophenolate mofetil is safe, well tolerated, and preserves lung function in patients with connective tissue disease-related interstitial lung disease. Chest130(1): 30-36.
117.
Taille, C., Debray, M.P. and Crestain, B. (2007) Sirolimus treatment for pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis . Ann Intern Med146(9): 667-668.
118.
Tashkin, D.P., Elashoff, R., Clements, P.J., Roth, M.D., Furst, D.E. and Silver, R.M. (2007) Effects of 1-year treatment with cyclophosphamide on outcomes at 2 years in scleroderma lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med176(10): 1026-1034.
119.
Tashkin, D.P., Elashoff, R., Clements, P.J., Goldin, J., Roth, M.D., Furst, D.E. et al. (2006) Cyclophosphamide versus placebo in scleroderma lung disease. N Engl J Med354(25): 2655-2666.
120.
Tong, Z., Dai, H., Chen, B., Abdoh, Z., Guzman, J. and Costabel, U. (2003) Inhibition of cytokine release from alveolar macrophages in pulmonary sarcoidosis by pentoxifylline: comparison with dexamethasone . Chest124(4): 1526-1532.
121.
Travis, W.D., King, T.E., Bateman, E., Lynch, D.A., Capron, F., Center, D. et al. (2002) ATS/ERS international multidisciplinary consensus classification of the idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. Am J Respir Crit Care Med165: 277-304.
122.
Trulock, E.P., Christie, J.D., Edwards, L.B., Boucek, MM, Aurora, P., Taylor, D.O. et al. (2007) Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Twenty-fourth Official Adult Lung and Heart-Lung Transplantation Report 2007. J Heart Lung Transplant26(8): 782-795.
123.
Tukiainen, P., Taskinen, E., Holsti, P., Korhola, C. and Valle, M. (1983) Prognosis of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax38(5): 349-355.
124.
Turner-Warwick, M., Burrows, B. and Johnson, A. (1980) Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: response to corticosteroid treatment and its effect on survival. Thorax35(8): 593-599.
125.
Turner-Warwick, M. and Evans, R.C. (1977) Pulmonary manifestations of rheumatoid disease . Clin Rheum Dis3: 549-564.
126.
Utz, J.P., Limper, A.H., Kalra, S., Specks, U., Scott, J.P., Vuk-Pavlovic, Z. et al. (2003) Etanercept for the treatment of stage II and III progressive pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest124(1): 177-185.
127.
Venuta, F., Rendina, E.A., Ciriaco, P., De Giacomo, T., Pompeo, E., Bachetoni, A. et al. (1993) Efficacy of cyclosporine to reduce steroids in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis before lung transplantation . J Heart Lung Transplant12(6 Pt 1): 909-914.
128.
Wallaert, B., Hatron, P.Y., Grosbois, J.M., Tonnel, A.B., Devulder, B. and Voisin, C. (1990) Subclinical alveolitis in immunological systemic disorders. Transition between health and disease?Eur Respir J3(4): 1206-1216.
129.
Walter, N., Collard, H. and King, T. (2006) Current perspectives on the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Proc Am Thoracic Soc3(4): 330-338.
130.
Weese, W.C., Levine, B.W. and Kazemi, H. (1975) Intersitial lung disease resistant to corticosteroid therapy. Report of three cases treated with azathioprine or cyclophosphamide . Chest67(1): 57-60.
131.
Wells, A., Desai, S.R., Rubens, M.B., Goh, N.S., Cramer, D., Nicholson, A.G. et al. (2003) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a composite physiologic index derived from disease extent observed by computed tomography . Am J Respir Crit Care Med167(7): 962-969.
132.
Williams, T.J. and Wilson, J.W. (2008) Challenges in pulmonary fibrosis: 7 - novel therapies and lung transplantation. Thorax63(3): 277-284.
133.
Wyser, C., Van Schalwyk, E., Alheit, B., Bardin, P. and Joubert, J. (1997) Treatment of progressive pulmonary sarcoidosis with cyclosporine A: a RCT. Am J of Respir and Crit Care Medicine157(5): 1371-1376.
134.
York, E.L., Kovithavongs, T., Man, S.F., Rebuck, A.S. and Sproule, B.J. (1990) Cyclosporine and chronic sarcoidosis. Chest98(4): 1026-1029.
135.
Zabel, P., Entzian, P., Dalhoff, K. and Schlaak, M. (1997) Pentoxifylline in treatment of sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med155(5): 1665-1669.
136.
Zhao, F., Zhang, Y.F., Liu, Y.G. et al. (2008) Therapeutic effects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells engraftment on bleomycin-induced lung injury in rats . Transplant Proc40(5): 1700-1705.
137.
Ziesche, R., Hofbauer, E., Wittmann, K., Petkov, V. and Block, L.H. (1999) A preliminary study of long-term treatment with interferon gamma-1b and low dose prednisolone in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. New England Journal of Medicine341(17): 1264-1269.
138.
Zisman, D.A., Lynch, J.P., Toews, G.B., Kazerooni, E.A., Flint, A. and Martinez, F.J. (2000) Cyclophosphamide in the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a prospective study in patients who failed to respond to corticosteroids. Chest117(6): 1619-1626.
