Evaluation of an EFL Teacher Training Program in Japan

Abstract

This article presents a study undertaken to evaluate how effectively an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) training program helps Japanese EFL teacher trainees prepare for their future positions. Data were collected via both interviews and surveys. Interviews were first conducted with Japanese teacher trainees enrolled in the program to identify concerns related to their EFL learning and teacher training. Since the interviews revealed potential areas for a new direction in the EFL curricula, surveys were later conducted to focus on the teacher trainees’ perceptions of Japan’s diversity. This article discusses the findings from interviews and surveys, and offers recommendations for further improvement to the Japanese EFL program.

Keywords

evaluation research program evaluation English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education diversity Japan education

Introduction

In contemporary societies with increasingly complex human interactions and information flows, English serves as an important means for individuals to communicate with one another. Because of the diversity of English-speaking populations, intercultural communications through using English has become increasingly important in the fields of linguistics and language education (e.g., Breidbach, Elsner, and Young 2011; Hatano 2009; Kubota and McKay 2009; McKay 2012; Osborn 2006). Along with the emphasis of intercultural communication, a primary task of English language education is how it can prepare the language learners with the attitudes, knowledge, and skills needed for creating egalitarian intercultural relationships.

In Japan where English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education has long been an important subject, the government continues to implement reforms in English language education throughout all levels of schools. Because English is considered a “common international language,” developing Japanese students’ English proficiency is seen as critical for the nation’s future (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology [MEXT] 2014). While English language classes are traditionally grammar/translation-based, the EFL curriculum has stressed oral communication skills. To create English-speaking environments and to bring living English into Japanese classrooms, Assistant Language Teachers, who are basically native English speakers, are being added. Japanese teachers are now expected to not just effectively co-teach English with Assistant Language Teachers but also conduct “communication activities in English during lessons at junior high and high schools” (MEXT 2014). Given such circumstances, an important inquiry is to investigate how Japanese teacher trainees develop their English proficiency to have effective intercultural interactions and prepare for their future teaching.

English Language Teacher Training¹ is a teacher education program that specializes in EFL education, and it is a part of the School of Education at one of the regional national universities outside of Tokyo, Japan. Enrollment in the program ranges from 50 to 60 students. This program has two main goals: (1) developing students’ knowledge and skills for maintaining effective communication with individuals of different cultures using English and (2) preparing students as effective English language teachers who understand various theories and possess the expertise to deal with educational problems. Indeed, these goals reflect the nation’s emphasis on the development of English proficiency among Japanese students.

In coordination with the English Language Teacher Training program director, this study was undertaken to understand teacher trainees’ experiences related to their own English learning experience and to identify ways to help them develop effective teaching strategies for their future profession. The focus was on Japanese teacher trainees because they are the ones who will teach English in Japanese schools, and their perceptions of their own English learning and use would likely influence their self-images and attitudes toward teaching (Breidbach 2011; Chun 2014; Tokumoto and Shibata 2011). Three research questions guided this study: (1) To what extent do Japanese teacher trainees perceive their own English learning? (2) What knowledge and skills do they consider important to prepare for effective intercultural interactions via English? (3) Finally, how can they structure their future English teaching within a multicultural and multilingual Japan? Two methods were used for data collection: interviews and surveys. Interviews were first conducted to identify issues and concerns related to English learning and teaching. Surveys were later administered to all Japanese teacher trainees at the English Language Teacher Training program to understand their perceptions of Japan’s diversity with a focus on minority issues (i.e., race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality). The results from this study were intended to help the program create future assessment protocols that would measure how successfully students complete their coursework and to what extent they feel satisfied with course offerings, and to help the program find potential areas for improvement.

Literature Review

English Language Education in Japan

Japan’s position in international and global communities has affected its own approach to EFL education. The importance of international understanding and communication became an urgent agenda in Japan, and English language education began to stress the development of students’ English proficiency. In the 1989 course of study guidelines for both junior high and senior high school (MEXT 2017), cultivating communication skills in English was officially indicated as a learning objective. In recent years, the emphasis on developing communication skills in English has continued. Japanese teachers are now expected to conduct “communication activities in English during lessons at junior high and high schools” (MEXT 2014). The Japanese government also plans to position Assistant Language Teachers in all elementary schools by 2019 as well as promotes their presence in junior high and high school classrooms for students to use English in practical situations such as conversations, presentations, and discussions (MEXT 2014).

However, this intensifying promotion of English language education has resulted in a neglect of Japan’s own ethnic and linguistic diversity. In reality, the growth in numbers of newcomers from both English-speaking and non-English-speaking countries has shaped ethnic and linguistic diversity in many parts of Japan. In fact, the number of ethnic and linguistic minority students who are enrolled in public schools has increased (Yoshimura 2011). It should be expected that those immigrant children with different native languages, other than Japanese, also learn English in Japanese schools. Given this circumstance, Japanese teachers need to be conscious of and sensitive to those students’ language learning experiences and language uses.

Due to the growing numbers of residents who are neither Japanese nor English speakers, more effective bilingual and/or multilingual language education curricula as well as special linguistic services need to be provided. Japan’s language education is often described as “exclusive bilingualism” or “double monolingualism” (Kubota and McKay 2009:613), meaning “Japanese as the national language and English as the foreign language” (Yoshimura 2011:137). Foreign guests and immigrants to Japan are expected to understand English; otherwise, they should use Japanese because it is the primary language in Japan. This exclusive monolingual approach does not support the multicultural and multilingual realities in the many Japanese schools with high concentrations of non-Japanese Asian students. It may also prevent Japanese students from understanding multicultural and multilingual phenomena (Kubota and McKay 2009). Moreover, the current practice of English teaching does not support the nation’s kyousei or co-living principle, and it even deprives English language learning of its relevance to learners in multicultural Japan. If the promotion of English learning continues in Japan, the role of English language education needs to be redefined within multicultural and multilingual contexts.

Language Awareness

Language awareness is considered an important dimension of knowledge in the fields of second and foreign language education (e.g., Association for Language Awareness 2017; Breidbach et al. 2011; Fairclough 1999; Hawkins 1984; Kubota and McKay 2009; McKay 2012). The concept of language awareness was originally developed to help language learners promote their literacy development. As a pioneer in developing this concept, Hawkins (1984) suggested that language should be taught as an integral subject in the school curriculum, connecting learners’ native and target languages, inside and outside classrooms, and the individual self and the social contexts in which they live. Thus, enhanced language awareness develops the learners’ consciousness of and sensitivity to their learning experience and language use (Breidbach et al. 2011). In this sense, the role of second and foreign language teachers is indeed critical in classrooms to help students fulfill their language potential. Therefore, language awareness refers to the “explicit knowledge about language, conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use” (Association for Language Awareness 2017).

How can English language teachers create effective learning environments for students? To allow students to express their desires, needs, and interests, teachers first need to acknowledge how power or authority shapes, limits, and even represses knowledge. This further suggests the need for both language teachers and students to develop a critical language awareness to recognize and challenge the unequal power relations and structures that are manifested in language education (Fairclough 1999; Kubota and McKay 2009). Schooling is “inherently [sic] political, as an arena in which various groups attempt to institutionalize their cultures, histories, and visions of social justice” (Apple 1999:11). Therefore, the school curriculum is based on selective traditions and resources, reflecting the power and authority structures of the school and the larger society. Despite the existence of multiple traditions and realities, only certain elements of possible knowledge get to be declared legitimate as official knowledge. As a prerequisite resource, foreign language teachers and trainees need to cultivate a critical awareness of “the social, political, economic, historical, and ideological contexts in which English is used” (Reagan 2004:54).

Acknowledging the nature of schooling, critical language awareness further enables teachers and students to foster their cultural tolerance and pursue social fairness and justice. For example, insufficient understanding of diversified English uses and users will reinforce not only prejudice and discrimination about English speakers but also prevent language teachers and learners from endorsing social justice. If Japanese students who wish to become English language teachers have false or limited perceptions about English speakers and even foreign immigrants living in Japan, these perspectives will likely lead them to devalue their own use of English and, thus, result in reinforcing biases with regard to other groups and maintaining cultural and linguistic hierarchies among English speakers.

Traditionally, EFL teaching was based on the native-speaker model and the assumption that the goal of English language learners is to achieve native-like English proficiency (McKay 2012). Therefore, English-speaking intercultural communication mostly targeted interactions between native and non-native speakers. In contrast, contemporary English uses increasingly take place in multicultural and multilingual settings. Those who use English in addition to their native languages have various reasons and purposes for their language learning. In this sense, the role of English teaching needs to be redirected to focusing on the varieties of English that exist between non-native and non-native speakers and also to helping learners cultivate communication skills and prepare for effective and appropriate intercultural relationships.

Method

As requested by the director of the English Language Teacher Training program, this project was conducted in the summers of 2015 and 2016, and it employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches. As a preliminary step, in-depth individual interviews were conducted over a month in 2015 to elicit the voices and experiences of teacher trainees, explore their perceptions of English learning and visions for their future English teaching, and seek inquiries for further research. Given the results of the interviews, surveys were then undertaken in 2016 to capture further information about the Japanese teacher trainees, in particular their perceptions of Japan’s diversity and related minority issues.

Sampling

Because it was necessary to select a population with specialist knowledge of the research issue, a nonprobability sampling approach was chosen (Armstrong 2010; Lincoln and Guba 1985). In conjunction with the program director, three criteria were set for selecting participants, those who (1) have experienced English language classes through Japanese schooling, (2) major in education with specialization of English language teaching and have taken an English language teaching practicum, and (3) intend to teach English in Japanese schools after their graduation. These criteria were essential to this study because the students are potential English language teachers whose self-images and attitudes will influence their future English language teaching (Breidbach 2011; Chun 2014; Tokumoto and Shibata 2011).

Because purposeful sampling aims “to maximize information, not facilitate generalization” (Lincoln and Guba 1985:202), I visited two courses (i.e., Methodology of English Language Teaching I and Methodology of English Language Teaching II) and distributed recruitment fliers to the potential interviewees. Those courses were chosen because all trainees attended one of the courses. Those who were interested in being interviewed scheduled dates and times. The interviews were conducted in Japanese, and they were semistructured, with three open-ended questions (see Appendix A). Although these questions were asked of each participant, additional follow-ups were added as necessary for individual interviewees. Each interview took approximately 1 to 1.5 hours. All interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and translated from Japanese to English by the author.

To follow up the interview findings, surveys were conducted in June of 2016. Survey participants were again solicited from the above-mentioned courses. The survey was distributed during the last 15 minutes of the class. The students who chose to participate in the surveys completed and returned the survey during that time. There were 54 students, and all of them completed the survey.

The survey instrument (see Appendix B) was designed in English and translated into Japanese by the author. There were a total of 42 questions, six of which were intended to collect demographic data (i.e., age, sex, nationality, traveled overseas, and plan to work or study overseas after graduation). The Likert-scale items focuses on student experiences in English language classes (Questions 1–12), and their perceptions of Japan’s domestic diversity, including the issues of race/ethnicity (Questions 13–25), gender (Questions 26–31), and sexual orientation (Questions 32–36). In addition, it contained two open-ended questions dealing with discrimination and prejudice in Japan and in other countries (Question 8 and 12).

Limitations

Because this study was exploratory, there were obvious limitations. First, the number of participants in this study was small, and any conclusions drawn should be treated with caution. Furthermore, the data depend on how the participants perceive their experience as Japanese learners. Thus, findings might change, based on individuals with a different range of experiences. Increasing the sample size will allow more comprehensive analyses. Second, examining course offerings and course syllabi will be required for further research on the impact of the program. Finally, interviews and surveys with faculty and alumni will provide the English language teacher training program with more information, which helps determine the impact of the program.

Ethical Considerations

Prior to this study, both interviews and surveys, I provided the research participant information sheet to participants and ensured confidentiality and anonymity. I explained to students that their participation in this study was voluntary. Even if they agreed to participate, they could withdraw their participation and/or refuse to answer any questions on the interview and/or the survey at any time without penalty. Finally, their participation or nonparticipation would have no effect on their grades.

Analysis

For the interview data analysis, I first examined the transcripts and identified the essential themes that emerged. Then, I highlighted significant statements and narratives that provide a deeper understanding of what the students experienced. Out of 51, a total of 19 students (nine males and 10 females) participated in the interviews. The response rate was about 37 percent. Their ages ranged from the 20s to 30s, and all of them planned to teach English in Japanese elementary, junior high, or high schools after graduation. All of them had taken the teaching practicum, and 13 were preparing to take the prefectural examination to become teachers. Twelve participants had also studied abroad with durations of one to eight months, and their destinations included Australia, Canada, and the United States. The other seven participants had not yet been overseas but were seeking opportunities for studying in English-speaking countries. Three major themes emerged from the data, which are the headings of the following discussion: perceptions of Japan’s domestic diversity; experiences related to intercultural communication in English; and perceptions of English learning and teaching in Japan.

To analyze the survey data, student responses were coded and entered into SPSS. Descriptive statistics were used to capture the general characteristics of the data. For open-ended questions, content analysis was conducted by the author to identify what the participants learned about regarding discrimination and prejudice in Japan and in other countries.

Interview Findings

Perceptions of Japan’s Domestic Diversity

Their perceptions of Japan’s diversity seemed to depend on the students’ interactions with foreign residents in their everyday lives. While some students viewed Japan as multicultural, others did not. For example, a second-year male student indicated that, since his childhood, many foreign immigrants had lived in his neighborhood because many factories and small- or medium-sized companies affiliated with Japanese large corporations have been built in his home city. He reported that the largest immigrant group in his area was Brazilian, followed by Chinese and Filipinos. He said, “In English classes at my high school, we used the information of these industries as material for learning English.” Thus, he had a chance to study his local community by using English.

Although the students admitted that immigrants and visitors increasingly came to Japan, some of them did not feel Japan was multicultural yet. A fourth-year female student said that she did not feel like she was co-living with foreign people. Knowing that foreign workers and visitors exist did not indicate to her that Japan is ready to fully accommodate them. Therefore, while Japan’s internal diversity is acknowledged to some degree, many Japanese may not feel they live in a multicultural setting. In other words, the existence of diversity in a community does not mean individual residents are ready to accept each other.

Experiences Related to Intercultural Communication in English

Because there are relatively limited English-speaking opportunities for English learners in Japan, English language classes are often the only places for them to be exposed to the English language activities. Despite the recent emphasis on acquiring communication skills in English, almost all the students reported that their past classes did not always provide them with opportunities for speaking and listening to English. Indeed, their classes tended to be heavily grammar-based. Consequently, to improve their communication skills in English, all the students voluntarily sought opportunities outside of English language classrooms. Some students chose to go to juku or cram schools to enhance their English grammar and vocabulary, and others went to English conversation schools to practice conversational English.

The majority of the students chose to participate in a study abroad program. Even though it was short-term, their overseas experience was valuable for developing not only their English proficiency but also their cross-cultural communication skills. For example, a fourth-year female student who stayed in Australia for a month said, “There is one thing I strongly felt . . . I could not speak English as I expected.” Even though she knew English words and phrases, she felt that nothing came out of her mouth appropriately. After studying abroad in Australia, she was in doubt whether her conversational skills were adequate. For her practice, she decided to intentionally talk to people, including Japanese, in English. Then, afterward, she became more confident with communicating in English and talking about various topics in English.

To prepare for intercultural communication using English, it is essential for the language learners to understand the cultures where the language is used. In fact, some students insisted that speaking grammatically correct English is not so important during actual conversations. A key concern for intercultural communication is how well people are able to understand each other. Although one may not have sufficient language fluency, nonverbal communications such as gesture and body language can often help mutual communications. Indeed, because conversations spontaneously take place, one may need to prepare for the unexpected. Therefore, knowledge and competence in both verbal and nonverbal communications are needed.

The longer the Japanese students studied abroad, the more they recognized intercultural issues. One fourth-year female student who had studied English in Hawaii for eight months reported that in addition to English, she learned a great deal of cultural information, especially attitudes toward diversity, including gay and lesbian communities. She observed that Japan may not be ready to accept certain kinds of diversity, including gays and lesbians. Nevertheless, through her study abroad in Hawaii, she learned the importance of openness in intercultural relationships. In fact, some of the students said that Japan is not fully ready to accept diversity because many Japanese are unable to express their opinions and thoughts clearly, let alone express differences of opinion. A fourth-year male student explained,

In Japan, Japanese is the primary language, and so basically, there is no need to use English. As long as Japanese people stay within the country, they can live without English. From a historical viewpoint, Japan is almost a single-ethnic nation. Many Japanese may not have much tolerance toward or acceptance of different views and values.

In his view, attitudes toward English learning reflect how the Japanese accept the diversity of both languages and individuals. Even though cultural differences exist, we may or may not accept different positions, especially on a first encounter. To avoid biases, individuals need to learn cultural differences as well as similarities.

The students’ responses also implied that their study abroad experiences made them reflect on their Japanese identities. For example, a fourth-year female who had studied English in the United States said, “I wish I knew more about Japanese history and culture so that I could have explained to people well when I was in the United States.” She suggested that Japanese students should learn more about their home country and culture before they interact with people from different countries.

Perceptions of English Learning and Teaching in Future Japan

All of the interviewees regarded English as a shared language or the language used for global communication. One of the English language teaching areas that the students clearly wished to emphasize was communication in English, especially pronunciation. While the majority of the students agreed with an emphasis on teaching conversational English, some cautioned about conducting English-only classrooms. Practical English-speaking settings could be set up in Japanese classrooms, but whether this type of lesson would be effective depends on individual students’ willingness to engage in conversational English. It appeared that the students wanted a language environment in which students could freely speak English without any anxieties regarding grammatical errors and accents.

Another area in the teaching of communicative English that emerged was the need to help students develop cultural and linguistic capital. For example, a second-year male student explained that learning about various cultures through English is a benefit. Although he had not yet been abroad, he wanted to study foreign cultures to be able to talk about his overseas experience in his future teaching classes. In addition, he said that he would like to take students to local Japanese-language schools for immigrant students (such as Brazilian and Chinese) and hold cultural exchange events with them.

The students were clearly aware of the global spread of English by describing various types of individuals who communicate with each other through English. They seemed to believe that English learning would open more opportunities for students. For example, a fourth-year male student said, “Through schooling, students only learn English. But after their gradation, they can choose to study other languages such as Chinese and French, depending on their interests.” Even though English is the only language stressed in Japanese education, it does not necessarily limit Japanese students’ experiences of cultural and linguistic diversity. Interestingly, another fourth-year male student described English as a “hub” language and explained that although people speak different native languages, we can still communicate with each other using that language. In his view, multiple varieties of English, both native and non-native varieties, should be taught in Japan’s English language classes.

In summary, the interviews revealed mixed responses to the question whether Japan is multicultural. Some of the students reported that multicultural and multilingual situations existed in their local community, noting different ethnic groups. However, others hesitated in defining Japan as multicultural and multilingual. Nevertheless, all the students kept seeking opportunities for practicing conversational English while staying in Japan and overseas. Among those who had studied abroad, the longer they stayed overseas, the more they were aware of diversity and social inequality issues on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation.

How well English as foreign language learners recognize their home culture, society, and community helped them carry on conversations in English. To be able to address social and political issues, express their own opinions and concerns, and exchange thoughts and information with their interlocutors reinforced their intercultural communication skills as well as English proficiency. By focusing on social issues, English language learners can develop the sensitivity required for intercultural communications. Given these findings, knowledge about Japan’s diversity and social inequality issues seemed key for developing the English language education curricula.

Survey Results

Surveys were next conducted to ask the Japanese teacher trainees about Japan’s domestic diversity. As indicated by the interviews, the focus was on race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. A total of 54 Japanese students (17 males and 37 females) completed the survey. As before, their age ranged from the 20s to the 30s. A total of 32 of the students (59.3 percent) planned to work or study abroad after graduation.

Table 1 summarizes the results from Questions 1 to 11.

Table 1.

Student Experiences in English Language Class.

Questions 1–12 “In my English classes, . . .”	Strongly agree	Somewhat agree	Somewhat disagree	Strongly disagree	Don’t know	Total (N = 54)
1. I learned about people from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.	13%	61.1%	22.2%	1.9%	1.9%	100%
2. The materials such as textbooks were relevant to my daily experiences.	3.7%	55.6%	35.2%	5.6%	—	100%
3. I learned about the issues of social inequality in Japan.	—	3.7%	46.3%	44.4%	5.6%	100%
4. I learned about the issues of the domestic racial and ethnic relations.	—	11.1%	38.9%	44.4%	5.6%	100%
5. I learned about the issues of gender and/or sexual orientation in Japan.	—	7.4%	42.6%	44.4%	5.6%	100%
6. I learned about issues of racial and ethnic discrimination and/or prejudice in Japan.	—	9.3%	42.6%	42.6%	5.6%	100%
7. I learned about issues of discrimination and/or prejudice on the basis of gender/sexual orientation in Japan.	—	9.3%	40.7%	44.4%	5.6%	100%
9. I learned about the issues of social inequality in other countries.	1.9%	51.9%	29.6%	13%	1.9%	98.1%
10. I learned about issues of racial and ethnic discrimination and/or prejudice in other countries.	1.9%	51.9%	31.5%	13%	3.7%	98.1%
11. I learned about issues of discrimination and/or prejudice on the basis of gender and/or sexual orientation in other countries.	—	18.5%	51.9%	25.9%	3.7%	100%

The first section asked the students about materials used in their past English language classes. About 74 percent of the students felt they learned about people from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds through their English classes, and about 59 percent said that the materials were relevant to their daily experiences. Only 4 percent indicated that they learned somehow about Japan’s social inequality, and somewhat more (11 percent) reported that they learned about Japan’s racial and ethnic issues. Similarly, less than 10 percent indicated that they learned about gender and sexual orientation issues, discrimination and prejudice within Japan, and discrimination and prejudice on the basis of race/ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. When they were asked for examples of “discrimination and prejudice in Japan,” only two students responded. One mentioned the term, danson johi, or patriarchy in Japan. The other reported that “In English class, we discussed Mariana Miyamoto who represented Japan at the Miss Universe 2015 Pageant and encountered disapproval of her title because she is biracial (Japanese and African American) and not a typical Japanese look.”

In contrast, when the issues of social inequality in other nations were asked, more than half of the participants (almost 54 percent) agreed that they learned about social inequality in other countries. Nearly 54 percent also indicated that they learned about racial and ethnic discrimination and prejudice in other countries, but only about 19 percent said that they learned about issues of gender and sexual orientation in other countries.

When asked for giving examples of discrimination and prejudice in other nations, 12 students responded. They noted, “the South-North Divide,” “Martin Luther King Jr.’s speech,” “prejudice and discrimination against black people,” “the white-black issues in the U.S.,” “ageism,” “Anti-Semitism,” “Aborigines,” “street children in Brazil,” “Apartheid in South Africa,” and “inequality between the rich and poor people.” The most common topic was the issue of prejudice and discrimination against blacks in the United States. One student “watched the documentary about discrimination against black students in American schools.”

The next section of the survey asked about Japan’s racial and ethnic minorities. Table 2 summarizes those results.

Table 2.

Racial/Ethnic Issues in Japan.

Questions 13–25	Strongly agree	Somewhat agree	Somewhat disagree	Strongly disagree	Don’t know	Total (N = 54)
13. Japan is a multiracial and multiethnic society.	1.9%	14.8%	53.7%	25.9%	3.7%	100%
14. I know about the historical, social, and cultural backgrounds of Japan’s ethnic minority groups.	3.7%	44.4%	31.5%	18.5%	1.9%	100%
15. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of the Ainu people.	—	25.9%	50%	22.2%	1.9%	100%
16. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of the Buraku people.	1.9%	24.1%	42.6%	29.6%	1.9%	100%
17. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of Zainichi Koreans.	3.7%	27.8%	37%	31.5%	—	100%
18. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of Zainichi Chinese.	—	18.5%	44.4%	35.2%	—	98.1%
19. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of Okinawan people.	7.4%	38.9%	42.6%	9.3%	1.9%	100%
20. I understand that racial/ethnic prejudice and discrimination exist in Japan.	9.3%	57.4%	25.9%	7.4%	—	100%
21. I understand that prejudice and discrimination against the Ainu exist in Japan.	1.9%	25.9%	42.6%	14.8%	14.8%	100%
22. I understand that prejudice and discrimination against the Buraku people exist in Japan.	9.3%	42.6%	25.9%	9.3%	13%	100%
23. I understand that prejudice and discrimination against Zainichi Koreans exist in Japan.	20.4%	61.1%	14.8%	1.9%	1.9%	100%
24. I understand that prejudice and discrimination against Zainichi Chinese exist in Japan.	22.2%	59.3%	14.8%	—	3.7%	100%
25. I am familiar with safety network or public support agencies available to racial/ethnic minorities in Japan.	—	5.6%	37%	55.6%	1.9%	100%

Only about 16 percent indicated that they believe Japan is a multiracial and multiethnic society, compared with the nearly 79 percent that did not. The students were almost evenly divided concerning their knowledge of the historical, social, and cultural backgrounds of Japan’s ethnic minority groups. However, when specific minority groups (i.e., the Ainu, Buraku, Zainichi Koreans, and Zainichi Chinese²) were involved, substantial majorities reported that they were not aware. Only their understanding of the Okinawan people even came close to a majority (46 percent).

It is interesting that the majority of students responded that discrimination and prejudice against these groups existed in Japan (about 67 percent). Yet depending on the specific group, their understandings varied. Only about 27 percent were aware of prejudice and discrimination against the Ainu, but about half (52 percent) were aware of prejudice and discrimination against the Buraku, and more than 80 percent about the Zainichi Korean and Chinese. Despite the majority who had recognized the existence of prejudice and discrimination, almost 93 percent indicated that they were not familiar with the public support agencies available to racial and ethnic minorities in Japan.

The last section of the survey dealt with issues of gender and sexual orientation within Japan. Table 3 presents those results.

Table 3.

Gender and Sexual Orientation Issues in Japan.

Questions 26–36	Strongly agree	Somewhat agree	Somewhat disagree	Strongly disagree	Don’t know	Total (N = 54)
26. I understand the historical, social, and cultural backgrounds of women’s movements in Japan.	1.9%	50%	42.6%	5.6%	—	100%
27. Prejudice and discrimination against women exist in Japan.	11.1%	57.4%	27.8%	3.7%	—	100%
28. Prejudice and discrimination against men exist in Japan.	3.7%	38.9%	48.1%	9.3%	—	100%
29. I am familiar with safety network or public support agencies available to women in Japan.	—	25.9%	35.2%	35.2%	3.7%	100%
30. I am familiar with safety network or public support agencies available to men in Japan.	—	9.3%	25.9%	63%	1.9%	100%
31. I am in the process of learning about gender inequality in Japan.	5.6%	27.8%	37%	29.6%	—	100%
32. I understand the historical background and contemporary experiences of LGBT in Japan.	3.7%	31.5%	46.3%	18.5%	—	100%
33. Prejudice and discrimination against LGBT exist in Japan.	22.2%	51.9%	5.6%	1.9%	18.5%	100%
34. I am familiar with safety network or public support agencies available to sexual minorities in Japan.	1.9%	7.4%	35.2%	51.9%	3.7%	100%
35. I want to learn about experiences and statuses of sexual minorities in Japan.	7.4%	38.9%	35.2%	11.1%	7.4%	100%
36. I am in the process of educating myself about experiences and statuses of sexual minorities in Japan.	1.9%	9.3%	31.5%	50%	7.4%	100%

Note. LGBT = lesbian, gay, bisexuality, and transgender.

More than half of the students (about 52 percent) indicated that they understood the historical, social, and cultural backgrounds of the women’s movement in Japan, and two-thirds (about 68 percent) agreed that prejudice and discrimination against women existed in Japan. However, more than 40 percent also agreed that there was prejudice and discrimination against men in Japan. Moreover, relatively few students appeared to be aware of public support agencies either for women (only 26 percent) or for men (less than 10 percent). Still, about a third indicated that they were in the process of learning about gender inequality within Japan. When asked about the lesbian, gay, bisexuality, and transgender (LGBT) group in Japan, just over a third (35 percent) said they understood the historical background and contemporary experiences of LGBTs, but nearly 75 percent indicated that prejudice and discrimination against LGBTs existed in Japan. Again, less than 10 percent of the students were familiar with the public support agencies available to LGBTs. Although the vast majority of survey participants recognized that prejudice and discrimination against LGBTs existed, only about half of them (about 46 percent) responded that they wanted to learn about the experiences and statuses of LGBTs in Japan, and only 11 percent indicated that they were in the process of educating themselves about experiences and statuses of LGBTs.

Discussion

This study was undertaken to understand how Japanese teacher trainees recognized cultural and linguistic diversity through their English language learning and teaching experiences and how they envisioned their future English teaching within a multicultural and multilingual Japan. While acknowledging the aforementioned limitations, this study still provides an evaluation of English language teacher trainees’ experiences and perceptions related to their English learning and teaching preparation. It also adds further insight to the role of EFL education in multicultural and multilingual settings such as Japan. One key aspect that emerged from the interviews was the use of local knowledge and information as a means of fostering attitudes required for effective intercultural interactions through English. Connecting language education with learners’ worlds is indeed crucial. In addition, the surveys provide some information regarding the Japanese teacher trainees’ perceptions of Japan’s racial, ethnic, and gender diversity. The teacher trainees learned little about social inequality issues, particularly within Japan, yet they felt that they learned about diverse cultures and individuals in their English classes. Therefore, Japanese teacher trainees need to explicitly learn about diversity and social inequality issues in intranational as well as international situations.

Whether Japan is considered multicultural depends on how individuals view the nation and what they know about it. Compared with other historically immigrant nations such as Canada and the United States, Japan might not be considered multicultural and multilingual. However, if the various social groups within Japan were acknowledged, Japan could be regarded as multicultural and multilingual. In this sense, insufficient acknowledgment of domestic minorities may affect Japanese attitudes toward non-Japanese people and cultures. In fact, some of the students explained that Japan should not yet be called multicultural and multilingual because of Japanese discriminatory attitudes and practices against non-Japanese. In their views, a nation with multicultural and multilingual situations does not necessarily mean that its people are ready to accept the cultural and linguistic diversity. Consequently, the discussion on Japan’s own domestic minority issues should be incorporated into the English language teacher training program to promote kyousei or co-living in society.

Both strategies and struggles for teaching communication in EFL classrooms were raised during the interviews. As an effective method for teaching communicative skills in a target language, incorporating the voices of language learners in classrooms is increasingly valued (Breidbach 2011; Hatano 2009; Osborn 2006). Focusing on communicative language teaching in foreign language education curricula, Breidbach (2011:97) argues that because “the current discursive frame of language teaching is set towards outcome standards and testability,” communicative language teaching has lost its original space for allowing language learners to pursue their emancipation, promote their participation, and empower their identities. Because teachers are required to teach subjects by following the course of study guideline, they have only limited time and space for critical thinking in classrooms. To bring the emancipatory dimension into foreign language education curricula, Breidbach (2011:105) further suggests,

One of the main tasks in foreign language pedagogy is the reconstruction of the political, social and, last but not least, individual implications of foreign language learning. This can best be achieved in fusing learner-oriented language teaching methods with learner-centred pedagogies.

In his view, developing the voices of the language learners is key to challenging the dominant force and bringing back the learners’ social and political emancipation in English language classrooms. Therefore, it is necessary for teachers to create opportunities for students to express their voices and experiences in classrooms while they engage in reflexive and critical teaching, rather than reproducing existing examples for practice.

Teaching the correlation between language education and the learners’ worlds is also important. According to the interviews, the Japanese teacher candidates observed the diversity in their local community and also communicated with foreign visitors and immigrants by using English. In this sense, the concept of language awareness will be well served to enable learners and teachers to relate in local English-speaking settings. The acknowledged local diversity can be defined as language awareness or an awareness of their social contexts in which English is being used. While teachers and students incorporate their experiences and voices, they can further create meaningful discourse on social, cultural, and political issues in the language classroom.

If the development of English proficiency is important for Japan’s future (MEXT 2014), the discussion of English teaching and learning needs to be resituated in multicultural and multilingual contexts. In doing so, cultivating language awareness, that is, awareness of the social context of language use and practice, is indeed useful because it gives learners more realistic views of their language uses and also helps them develop language proficiency. Beyond this level, critical language awareness further provides an important stance for language users to establish intercultural relationships. Teaching communicative language means to promote an awareness of intercultural interactions among various social groups. As a part of English language teacher training, teachers and trainees should both be encouraged to foster a critical awareness of language. It helps them scrutinize “the interrelationship between identities, ideologies, and hierarchical relations of power between groups” (McKay 2012:39), including teachers who hold authority in their classrooms. Teachers’ perception of their own authority helps trainees acknowledge teacher–student relationship and may enable them to create safe space for their students to express their voices.

EFL classrooms can provide opportunities to discuss social justice, or how power relations are manifested, not only as broader themes but also in more concrete social categories such as class, gender, and race. This stance allows teachers and students to acknowledge diversity, in particular the domestic and local diversity composed of various English and non-English speakers. Therefore, critical language awareness helps learners and teachers acknowledge the varieties of English and further foster their sensitivity during language practices.

Recommendations

Based on all the data collected, this study concluded that the teacher trainees at English Language Teacher Training program valued their experience of English learning and were overall satisfied with teacher training and preparation through the program. However, some concerns emerged from the interviews and surveys, and these would provide the program director with additional insights to improve the program.

The following recommendations were made:

Encourage students to find opportunities for practicing conversational English in both international and intranational contexts. While studying abroad is beneficial, one can also find opportunities to practice English in Japan due to the number of visitors and immigrants who speak English.

Encourage students to learn local knowledge and information because it appeared to greatly influence students’ motivation and preparedness for English learning.

Encourage students to pay attention to the social issues that surround them. Encourage them to express their opinions and thoughts clearly, let alone differences of opinion. For example, it would be valuable for them to learn about diversity issues, including race, ethnicity, and LGBT.

Foster students’ readiness and sensitivity for English-speaking intercultural interactions. Because conversations spontaneously take place, students need to be encouraged not to worry about grammatically correct English. Rather, they should be encouraged to practice speaking and listening to the language.

Create specific courses for teacher trainees to learn and discuss diversity and social inequality issues with a focus on race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation in domestic contexts as well as other nations. The surveys revealed that the majority did not believe Japan is multicultural. Moreover, while half learned about social inequality issues in other countries, less than 10 percent learned about those in Japan. Even though the students tended to recognize that prejudice and discrimination existed in Japan, they knew little about specific safety networks for minorities living in Japan. Explicitly studying about historical and contemporary statuses of Japan’s own minority groups as well as recent foreign visitors and immigrants would be helpful for teacher trainees so that they can prepare for sharing local knowledge and information and discussing their home country.

Finally, this study highly recommended that a more thorough evaluation should be conducted to assist the program to reach its full potential. Based on the entire evaluation project, two further recommendations were made:

Develop a continuous process that allows for data collection on program goals and outcomes as it relates to students, faculty, and alumni. This will allow for a more comprehensive evaluation in the future.

Focus on the assessment of behavior and knowledge changes as a result of the program’s curriculum. For example, pre–post tests would be useful for evaluating behavioral change or knowledge gains as a result of the program’s training.

Related Resources

Association for Language Awareness (ALA)

The Association for Language Awareness is an international professional organization that is dedicated to developing activities across the whole range of language awareness. For more information, see http://www.languageawareness.org/.

Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT)

The Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT) is a nonprofit organization that aims at the development of language teaching and learning. For more information, see https://jalt.org/.

Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) International Association

The TESOL International Association is an international association for professionals developing the quality of English language teaching. The website (http://www.tesol.org/) provides information about program evaluation such as “Tips for evaluating teacher education programs” and “Tips for evaluating independent certificate programs” (http://www.tesol.org/search?query=program%20evaluation).

Footnotes

Appendix A

Appendix B

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Author Biography

Mieko Yamada, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW). Her research interests include the sociology of education, race and ethnicity, applied sociology, and Japan studies. She is currently working on a program evaluation of the impact of a transitional housing program for veterans.

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