Subordinate–Supervisor Friendship in Cyberspace: A Typological and Comparative Analysis of Hotel Employees

Abstract

Individuals’ social and professional arenas entangle so easily today with the rise of social networking sites (SNS). Drawing upon the boundary and social exchange theories, this study investigates whether supervisor–subordinate interactions in cyberspace will spill over to the workplace. A two-dimensional typology of hotel employees is delineated on the basis of their SNS interaction behaviors. The moderating effect of individual type is also investigated. The results indicate that supervisor–subordinate SNS interactions could transition to favorable leader–member exchanges in the workplace that, in turn, promote employees’ organizational citizenship behaviors. In addition, the impact of SNS interaction on leader–member exchange is stronger for employees with proactive personalities and self-disclosure tendencies. This study fills the void of inadequate empirical literature on hierarchical friendship in cyberspace and advances research on the moderating effect of employee personality. Managerial implications are also discussed.

Keywords

boundary social networking sites social exchange leader–member exchange organizational citizenship behavior

Introduction

The once-taboo edict in the workplace of not getting too close to your professional contacts now seems to be becoming a thing of the past, with an increasing number of studies discussing the possibility of mobilizing informal friendships in a work context (e.g., Mao et al., 2012; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013; Sias et al., 2012). In particular, the pervasiveness of social networking sites (SNS) is catalyzing the cultivation of workplace friendships by connecting in cyberspace 58% of employees with their work colleagues (Duggan et al., 2015). If a friend request is received from their boss, 84% of respondents imply that they will accept it (Karl & Peluchette, 2011). In parallel with the prevalence of befriending work contacts on SNS is the debate on its pros and cons, and the lag behind of the legal system (Peluchette et al., 2013). Although the topic is coming under scrutiny in academia, most of the current research has centered on coworker relationships (Huang & Liu, 2017; Robertson & Kee, 2017; F. X. Yang, 2018), leaving the subordinate–supervisor dynamic in cyberspace an uncharted terrain of research. Leader–member relations vastly differ from coworker relations in that higher hierarchical complexity resides in power-laden exchanges (Bisel et al., 2012). Therefore, empirical evidence is needed to probe how employees’ SNS interactions with supervisors are superimposed on their workplace relationships and organizational outcomes.

Friendships with supervisors nurtured in a non-work-centric manner may spill over to the workplace, as implied by boundary theory (Ashforth et al., 2000). In a subordinate–supervisor dyad, a more strengthened tie with the boss is considered one of the top benefits of SNS friendships (Peluchette et al., 2013). This translates to being part of the supervisor’s “in-group,” or enhanced leader–member exchange (LMX, Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Subsequently, social exchange theory (SET) suggests that employees will reciprocate these exchanges through organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), repaying the favor owed to the colleagues and the organization through helping, altruism, and job dedication (Ilies et al., 2007). These conjectures regarding the SNS–workplace transition, however, await further validation.

In addition, previous research seldom investigated employees’ personal characteristics in SNS–workplace transitions. Differences reside in their hierarchical SNS interactions (Peluchette et al., 2013). Some view these interactions as an opportunity for career advancement, while others do not feel comfortable with intrusions into their personal lives. This distinction gives rise to mixed reactions among employees, characterized by (a) the initiation of a friend request that maps onto the proactive personality (J. A. Thompson, 2005) and (b) the adoption of privacy settings on SNS that is associated with one’s self-disclosure tendency (Sheehan, 2002). These two factors define a two-dimensional typology of employees and offer much food for thought for further comparisons.

The following research questions guide this study:

Research Question 1: Do supervisor–subordinate interactions on SNS transition to LMX in turn leading to employees’ OCBs?

Research Question 2: Regarding this transition, is there any difference between employee segments as characterized by interaction behaviors?

This study aims to address these two questions in the hotel industry, using the case of Facebook, the most frequently researched SNS platform for intraorganizational relationships (e.g., Huang & Liu, 2017; Peluchette et al., 2013; F. X. Yang, 2018). The contributions of this study are threefold. First, studies on hierarchical relationships in cyberspace remain exploratory. The current research fills this void by empirically investigating how supervisor–subordinate SNS dynamics could transition to workplace exchanges. Second, it enriches the literature on cyberspace–workplace relationship transition and employee personality through a typological comparison, facilitating an understanding of nuances in individuals with different levels of social orientation. Finally, managerial insights have been discussed, inspiring both employees and organizations to legitimately embrace the fulfilling outcomes of social exchanges across personal and professional domains.

Literature Review

Blurred Work–Life Boundaries in Cyberspace

The once clearly defined lines are now being blurred by the rise of social media, pushing the life–work boundaries that were seen as fixed and unbridgeable (Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013). The new online technologies are “capable of spanning more boundaries than prior technologies given their pervasiveness and expected use in personal and professional contexts” (Walden, 2016, p. 351), which facilitates the connection of different worlds. From a broad spectrum of social media platforms, SNS have soared in popularity and gained the most attention among internet surfers, with Facebook ranking first in terms of active users and popularity (Y. Jiang et al., 2014). When employees’ virtual lives and professional lives collide in cyberspace, it will be difficult for them to maintain a distance from their work contacts on SNS. The relational boundaries that once enabled employees to keep workplace relationships strictly professional are blurred by the ubiquity of online social networking platforms.

Building SNS friendships with work contacts has been a controversial issue, with the benefits and costs under debate for years. Pertinent research is still fragmented and sporadic. A number of exploratory studies have outlined an array of potential risks of such cyberspace relationships, including privacy intrusion, work–life balance, and impression management problems (e.g., Abril et al., 2012; Bucher et al., 2013; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013). Privacy issues arise as a top employee concern, as leaks of personal information on SNS could be more prevalent than that in face-to-face channels (Bevan et al., 2014). Previous studies have outlined several risks yielded by the “information disclosure–privacy dilemma” (Wilson et al., 2012, p. 212), for example, harassment and tainted professional reputation. A problem of identity conflict and intrusion of work into life may also be the reasons for employees to keep a separation between their personal and professional domains (Peluchette et al., 2013). Empirical studies, however, do not find an association between these costs and reduced interaction intensity, pointing out that this “implies ways of managing online relationships in a more deliberate manner” (F. X. Yang, 2020, p. 10), such as the use of privacy settings or a second account.

The positive spillovers of such interactions are also backed by supporters, who have elaborated on desirable individual outcomes, such as relationship reinforcement, career advancement, and smoother work-related communication (Frampton & Child, 2013; Huang & Liu, 2017; Schmidt et al., 2016). Recent studies have provided empirical evidence of positive cyberspace–workplace spillovers. Using SNS with work associates is expected to increase online social capital, which in turn enhances employees’ job satisfaction and job performance (Huang & Liu, 2017). In the hotel industry, SNS friendship transitions to both fun and stress in the workplace, while the overall impact on interpersonal relationships could be positively valenced (F. X. Yang, 2018). In addition, the positive spillover effect from cyberspace to the workplace is subject to the level of job interdependence across team members (F. X. Yang & Wong, 2019). These dynamics, however, are mostly discussed in a peer-to-peer context, while hierarchical exchanges are seldom scrutinized. The current research will mainly center on subordinate–supervisor dynamics and will further investigate how their relationships in cyberspace transition to exchanges in the workplace and subsequently induce positive organizational outcomes.

Subordinate–Supervisor Relationships

As a “microcosm of the organizational universe” (Bisel et al., 2012, p. 129), the dyadic subordinate–supervisor relationship has long been a focus of organizational research. It is the supervisors who act as formal representatives of a company by virtue of organizational position, and thus their relationships with subordinates are of paramount importance for developing employee–organization bonds (Zhang et al., 2017). Two main research streams stem from studies to articulate dynamics between supervisors and their followers: those focusing on work-centric relations (e.g., LMX) and those focusing on non-work-centric, sentimental ties (e.g., workplace friendships).

The concept of LMX, defined as the exchanges that leaders develop with each of their followers in the workplace (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), has commanded research attention for decades. The principle of LMX theory stipulates that the quality and type of such dyadic relation is different with different subordinates, subsequently affecting the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of the exchange parties (Ilies et al., 2007). Considerable research has been devoted to investigating the antecedents and consequences of such exchange behaviors. Dulebohn et al. (2012) conducted a meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of LMX and investigated potential moderators that condition these relationships. A variety of factors related to follower/leader characteristics and their interpersonal relationships have been shown to influence the quality of LMX and play a role in determining employee job-related consequences, such as turnover intentions, job performance, job satisfaction, and OCB. In addition, the existing literature has outlined a number of contextual variables that condition the antecedents–LMX–consequences paths, such as work settings and cultural dimensions. LMX is now a classic but nevertheless still inspiring topic in management research; it determines how leaders allocate resources, conceal or transmit information, and provide psychological support to their team members (Tse et al., 2008).

The second research stream related to supervisor–subordinate dynamics is relatively informal, voluntary, and non-work-centric—that is, workplace friendships (Sias & Cahill, 1998). These extrarole relationships are nurtured between members and leaders through a variety of organizational activities and off-job activities. Unlike LMX, which is restricted to work-related exchanges, supervisor–subordinate friendships are distinctive in two aspects: voluntary interdependence and the degree of mutual concern and interest (Tse et al., 2008). With respect to voluntary interdependence, workplace friendships are not imposed on employees by formal requirement but are developed by choice and willingness. Employees make acquaintances and maintain friendships with selected workmates based on their implicit disregard criteria (Rodin, 1982) or by reason of similarity, proximity, instrumentality, and so on (Dotan, 2009). This fundamentally distinguishes friendships from compulsory ties in organizations that are created for the fulfillment of particular roles (Morrison & Cooper-Thomas, 2016). In addition, friendships at work embody mutual concern and interest that indicate to what extent an employee is unique and irreplaceable for his or her colleagues (Winstead et al., 1995). Friendships are rewarding per se, and a specifiable set of rewards dictates whether one becomes and remains a friend of another (Wright, 1984).

Extant research predominantly focuses on a traditional supervisor–subordinate dyad maintained in an offline context, while the potential of their online relationships has seldom been investigated. This will be further discussed in the current study.

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Boundary Theory and SET

The current research builds on boundary theory and SET to investigate the cyberspace–workplace spillovers between employees and their supervisors. Boundary theory defines boundaries as “the physical, temporal, emotional, cognitive, and/or relational limits” (Ashforth et al., 2000, p. 474) according to which individuals segment and manage different domains, such as life, professional, and social arenas. Boundary-spanning behaviors occur when one transitions between different domains, in many cases with a certain degree of role integration that involves psychological and physical benefits/costs (Bulger et al., 2007). As indicated by boundary theory, it is these benefits and costs that condition a person’s boundary management strategies along a segmentation–integration continuum.

The expected outcomes of such boundary-crossing behaviors could be further interpreted by SET (Blau, 1964), which implies that relationship decisions are benefit-oriented and hinge on the potential economic, informational, or social exchange rewards that are generated by such decisions. SET provides a theoretical underpinning for the establishment of social relationships in organizations that are nurtured in a self-interested way such that employees tend to bond “with those who can provide more benefits, e.g., work-related advice and support” (F. X. Yang & Lau, 2015, p. 45). In the hospitality research, SET has been widely used to decipher why individuals engage in different interpersonal exchanges in the workplace (e.g., Hon et al., 2015; Ling et al., 2017; Luo et al., 2014). SET combined with boundary theory provides theoretical underpinnings that legitimize employee social exchanges across private and professional domains, delineating how non-work-centric SNS friendships could spill over to the workplace.

Subordinate–Supervisor SNS Interactions and Consequences in the Workplace

In the context of SNS interactions, employees’ boundary-crossing decisions and behaviors are motivated by an array of potential benefits, with positive exchanges with supervisors being one of the most desirable outcomes (Peluchette et al., 2013). The quality of such a dyadic working relationship, defined as LMX (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), is an essential goal for employees’ boundary-spanning behaviors according to SET. LMX has received greater attention in the hospitality research compared with other social exchanges with coworkers and customers (Ma & Qu, 2011). This is in line with management studies that have articulated how leaders can exert salient influence on workplace performance at the individual, group, and organizational levels (Ilies et al., 2007). Subject to time and resource constraints, supervisors will only exert efforts to develop quality relationships with selected employees (Kim et al., 2010).

With SNS creating new means to engage and socialize in cyberspace, employees are able to seek more opportunities from their superiors by crossing work–life boundaries and altering the protocols guiding them. First, as implied by SET (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), social exchanges are voluntary and reciprocal actions of contingent giving. In the context of cyberspace friendship, subordinate–supervisor SNS interactions further catalyze a higher level of social exchanges as the beneficial rewards to reciprocate the online relationships (F. X. Yang, 2020). Second, online friendships between employees and supervisors, nurtured by frequent sharing of information, trust, and confidence, fosters intimate “in-group” relationships and increases similarity. This entrenched leader–member similarity could further transfer to higher quality LMX in the workplace (Schaubroeck & Lam, 2002). Third, as noted by Ollier-Malaterre and Rothbard (2015), “our social media strategy affects our relationships at work by influencing how much we are respected and liked by our colleagues” (p. 29). Respect from the exchange parties is essential to supervisory performance ratings and LMX (Batenburg & Bartels, 2017; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013). Given the above rationale, the first hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Intensity of SNS use with supervisors is positively associated with LMX.

A higher level of LMX fosters an employee’s OCB. OCB refers to an employee’s extra helping behaviors that are discretionary and not contractual or explicitly credited by the reward system; OCB will benefit others in the workplace and positively contribute to organizational effectiveness (Organ, 1988). SET underpins the relationship between LMX and OCB, suggesting that employees are willing to reciprocate the organization when they engage in high-quality social exchanges with their supervisors (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005), that is, “persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them” (Homans, 1958, p. 606). Employees’ reciprocal behaviors beyond their prescribed roles are therefore products of the treatment they receive. Their positive social exchanges with supervisors will spill over to other domains, leading to enhanced OCB with coworkers and the organization (Dulebohn et al., 2012; Ilies et al., 2007; Ma & Qu, 2011). Based on the above reasoning, the follow hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): LMX is positively associated with OCB.

A Typology of Employees Based on Subordinate–Supervisor Interaction Behaviors on SNS

Employees differ in their attitudes toward audience segregation of the work and life personas. This further implies how the employees are typologized based on their willingness to interact with their supervisors and wariness about daily life disclosure, which is interpreted through the lens of a proactive personality and self-disclosure tendency.

Proactive personality

Employees are characterized by the manner in which they approach the environment and interact with others—whether in a proactive way or not. A proactive personality is defined as a tendency to describe those who “scan for opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until they reach closure by bringing about change” (Bateman & Crant, 1993, p. 105). Proactive employees exhibit an innate need to actively identify and seize opportunities, manipulate their surroundings, and welcome social interactions. Passive job incumbents, by contrast, hesitate to enact situational changes or make the first move and are less likely to take career initiatives (W.-D. Li et al., 2014; J. Yang et al., 2011). Therefore, it is contended that proactive employees are associated with a higher degree of job control, higher quality of LMX, and more potential for career enhancement (N. Li et al., 2010; Parker & Sprigg, 1999).

The initiation of more network building is a prominent characteristic of a proactive personality (J. A. Thompson, 2005). In the context of SNS interaction, employees with proactive or passive personalities may hold diverse attitudes toward taking the initiative to friend supervisors. Proactive employees prefer to make the first move by sending a friend request. Their passive counterparts, however, may not make use of the high control to seek relational opportunities with their supervisors. This is the first dimension that delineates the typology of employees in the current study.

Self-disclosure tendency

As noted by Rubin (1973), self-disclosure constitutes an integral part of every sort of interpersonal relationship; personal and professional relationships are of no exception (Tardy & Smithson, 2018). Individual tactics of self-disclosure are always tied to the discussion of boundary management, a predominant strategy of segmenting topic domains and defining appropriate and “taboo” topics in each domain (Baxter, 1990). The extent to which a person is open of the self to others and blurs communication boundaries conveys the tendency to voluntarily disclose private information. The degree of employee self-disclosure, in this sense, demonstrates different needs in the disclosure–privacy continuum.

When applied in cyberspace interactions with supervisors, privacy management is also deemed a strategic response to the tradeoff between revealing and concealing. Employees whose need for intimacy outweighs that for privacy may manage privacy settings on SNS to offset unexpected risks; those wary users who attach more importance to privacy regulation, in contrast, will deliberately prevent unintended disclosure by different means (Frampton & Child, 2013; Sheehan, 2002). This is defined as the second dimension that determines the typology of employees in this research.

Figure 1 provides a typological diagram of the four types of employees characterized by the two dimensions. These types are interpreted as socializers, initiators, followers, and avoidants. Socializers are typically quite comfortable crossing the boundaries between personal and professional arenas. They hold a proactive personality profile and actively seek opportunities from their supervisors by initiating friendship. In addition, they do not bother to keep their work contacts separate from other friends and are characterized by their readiness to disclose personal information to their superiors. In comparison, initiators actively send out friend requests, but practice the utmost prudence during interactions with their leaders by adopting privacy settings. Followers, by contrast, are relatively nonchalant about SNS friendships and only passively accept invitations from their supervisors. However, they do not think it necessary to carefully organize their SNS contacts or conceal any feelings from their supervisors. The fourth type of employees, namely, avoidants, represents the most passive and wary personality type. They do not display any initiative, but rather tend to manage the friends list deliberately and prevent unintentional information disclosure.

Figure 1.

A Typology of Hotel Employees Based on Their SNS Behaviors With Supervisors.

The Moderating Effect of Employee Type

Proactive personality

The moderating effect of a proactive personality has been documented in organizational research (e.g., Z. Jiang, 2017; N. Li et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2018; B. Thompson & Simkins, 2017; Zhao et al., 2013). Proactive personalities imply a “stable disposition to take personal initiative in a broad range of activities and situations” (Seibert et al., 2001, p. 847), which facilitates positive change regardless of unfavorable situational constraints. As proactive employees take an active approach to identify opportunities and break from the status quo, they are more likely to reduce uncertainties in the environment and forestall obstacles that hinder socialization processes (N. Li et al., 2011). Therefore, it is posited that a stronger link between intensity of SNS use and LMX will exist for proactive employees who initiate friendships with their supervisors. This expectation is based on the notion that employees’ proactive personality attenuates the pernicious influence of uncertainties in boundary-crossing and their efforts make the communication process more effective.

Self-disclosure tendencies

Employee self-disclosure tendencies or privacy concerns also influence how cyberspace interaction transitions to workplace exchanges. Self-disclosure has been studied as a moderator in both offline and online contexts (e.g., Shen, 2015; Wang et al., 2018) and has been considered vital in relationship development (Lee et al., 2008). A willingness to divulge personal information conveys confidence and mutual trust, which breeds intimacy and makes the relationship-building process easier. In addition, the equity theory suggests that individuals are inclined to reciprocate the same intimacy they receive—that is, “a tendency to maintain equity of exchange to equalize both inputs and outputs” (Lee et al., 2008, p. 694). This implies that stronger self-disclosure reinforces relationship development through the sharing of predictive and explanatory knowledge (Derlega et al., 1993) and breeds the receiver’s liking (Van Noort et al., 2014). In this sense, intimate self-disclosure on SNS platforms promotes information sharing, which further facilitates relationship building and urges the supervisor to reciprocate through a higher degree of social exchange.

Given the above rationale, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Employees moderate the relationship between intensity of SNS use and LMX, such that (H3a) the relationship is stronger for employees who initiate the friending request, and (H3b) the relationship is stronger for employees who do not adopt privacy settings.

The conceptual model of the research and proposed hypotheses are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

The Conceptual Framework.

Method

Data Collection

Data were collected from five-star hotel employees in Macao who were affiliated with a local institution through alumni associations. Prior to the survey, management permissions were obtained. A survey package was then distributed to each employee, including a questionnaire and a cover letter elaborating on the purpose of the study. The respondents were also informed about anonymity and confidentiality. A screening question was asked, which defined a qualified respondent as one who was a Facebook friend with his or her immediate supervisor.

The survey toolkits were initially sent to 625 employees, and 414 questionnaires were returned enclosed. Of those, 86 declared that they didn’t use Facebook with their immediate supervisor, either because they didn’t have a Facebook account (34 out of 86) or do not befriend their supervisor on Facebook due to boundary-management concerns (52 out of 86). With the removal of the 86 respondents, responses from 328 employees were collected for further analysis.

Measures

All the focal constructs used in the survey were adopted from previously validated measures. The measures were originally designed in English and then translated into Chinese by two bilingual researchers using a back-to-back method. This way, possible translation errors were efficiently reduced and semantic equivalence was ensured.

Intensity of SNS use was measured using a four-item scale from Moqbel et al. (2013). The wording of “social networking sites” in the questions was modified to “Facebook” to fit the context of the current study. A sample question is, “Facebook is part of my daily routine to connect with my supervisor.” Cronbach’s alpha of the four items is .82.

LMX was measured using six items from Ma and Qu (2011). A sample question is “I have a good working relationship with my immediate supervisor.” Cronbach’s alpha of the six items is .86.

OCB was measured by 12 items from Ma and Qu (2011), including six items for the individual aspect (OCBI) and six items for the organizational aspect (OCBO). Sample questions for the two subdimensions, respectively, are “I help others when their workload is heavy,” and “I say good things about our hotel when talking with outsiders.” Cronbach’s alpha is .91 for OCBI, .90 for OCBO, and .79 for the second-order construct.

All the items were measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Control and typological variables

Gender, age, and tenure in the current hotel were controlled on all endogenous variables to parse out alternative explanations. First, as gender role theory explains, individuals internalize cultural gender expectations and are apt to conform to their ascribed gender roles in work and life (Eagly & Wood, 1991). Therefore, previous literature suggests that gender may play a role in determining an individual’s supervisor–subordinate relationship as well as how he or she acts as an organizational citizen. Compared with their male counterparts, female employees tend to have less traditional and bounded career orientations, thus are not as dependent on their immediate supervisors, and demonstrate relatively low-quality LMX relationships (Jung & Takeuchi, 2016). In addition, females are expected to be associated with a higher degree of nurturing and caring, and are perceived as more altruistic to perform helping OCBs (Kidder, 2002).

Second, age-related changes in the workplace could be explained through the lens of life span development theories. When they are aging, individuals tend to develop a higher internal standard of meeting mutual and moral obligations, and demonstrate more need for affiliation (Wagner & Rush, 2000). This implies a higher willingness by older employees to perform altruistic behaviors, motivated by a norm of benevolence. In addition, individuals’ intrinsic and extrinsic work-related motives are stronger when individuals are younger (Kooij et al., 2011). This age-related decline in need for self-advancement, learning, work compensation, and promotion may discourage older employees from actively interacting with their supervisors.

As for organizational tenure, the job embeddedness theory suggests that long-tenured employees become less mobile. The decreased external mobility promotes job embeddedness and, in turn, motivates employees to perform well as their interests are aligned with those of the organization in which they are embedded (Ng & Feldman, 2010). Therefore, employees with a long organizational tenure are more likely to engage in high-quality LMX and demonstrate high citizenship behaviors.

The employees also answered the following two dichotomous questions: (a) who initiated the Facebook friending request, you or your supervisor? and (b) have you adopted any privacy settings to limit what your supervisors can see on your Facebook page? The respondents were further categorized based on their answers to these two questions.

Findings

Sample Profile

Of the 328 respondents, female employees (58%) outnumbered males (42%). As for age, 32% of the respondents were between 18 and 25 years old, 34% between 26 and 35 years old, 24% between 36 and 45 years old and 10% above 45 years old. Most of the respondents held a bachelor’s degree (66%) and reported that they were single (65%). On average, the respondents had a working experience in the hotel industry of 4.3 years and the experience within their current hotel was 2.9 years. The departments in which they were working were reported as, approximately, 27% front desk, 11% housekeeping, 15% sales and marketing, 17% food and beverage, 25% back office, and the rest in other departments. Finally, the respondents were allocated to one of the four types according to their Facebook interaction behaviors, including 22% socializers, 27% initiators, 29% followers, and 22% avoidants.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Common Method Bias

CFA was performed to assess convergent and discriminant validity. First, the baseline model that included all three variables of interest—intensity of SNS use, LMX, and OCB—indicated a good fit (χ²/df = 2.03, comparative fit index [CFI] = .95, nonnormed fit index [NNFI] = .94, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = .06, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = .06). We also compared it with several alternative models, including the two-factor models that combined any two variables and the one-factor model. As shown in Table 1, the hypothesized three-factor model fits better than any of the alternative models and was adopted for further analysis.

Table 1.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (N = 328).

Models	χ²/df	CFI	NNFI	RMSEA	SRMR
Three-factor model	2.03	.95	.94	.06	.05
Two-factor models
Intensity of SNS use and LMX combined	3.49	.88	.88	.07	.09
LMX and OCB combined	5.13	.80	.77	.11	.09
Intensity of SNS use and OCB combined	5.12	.80	.77	.11	.10
One-factor model	6.99	.71	.67	.14	.11

Note. CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = nonnormed fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual; SNS = social networking sites; LMX = leader–member exchange; OCB = organizational citizenship behavior.

The results in Table 2 further showed that the standardized loadings on each construct were all significant, ranging from .62 to .97. The composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) of the scales were adopted to assess convergent validity. All the CR values satisfied the required level of .70 (.78–.89); the AVE values exceeded the suggested threshold of .50 (.51–.79). In addition, internal consistency reliability was assured as the alpha values were greater than .70.

Table 2.

Scale Items and Validation (N = 328).

Scale Items	Standardized Loadings	Alpha	CR	AVE
Intensity of SNS use		.82	.83	.54
Facebook is part of my daily routine to connect with my supervisor.	.67
I am happy to tell my supervisor I’m on Facebook.	.70
I feel out of touch with my supervisor when I haven’t logged onto Facebook for a while.	.74
I feel I am an important part of the Facebook community of my supervisor.	.83
Leader–member exchange (LMX)		.86	86	.51
I have a good working relationship with my immediate supervisor.	.62
I know how satisﬁed my immediate supervisor is with my work performance.	.74
My immediate supervisor will use authority to help me solve work problems.	.73
My immediate supervisor would protect me in work matters if needed.	.72
My immediate supervisor understands the problems associated with my position	.73
My immediate supervisor knows my potential.	.73
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
Organizational citizenship behavior—individual (OCBI)		.91	.94	.61
I help others when their workload is heavy.	.74
I help others who have been absent to ﬁnish their work.	.72
I take time to listen to my coworkers’ problems and worries.	.83
I go out of my way to help new coworkers.	.81
I take personal interest in my coworkers.	.78
I pass along notices and news to my coworkers	.81
Organizational citizenship behavior—organization (OCBO)		.90	.89	.59
I will give advance notice when unable to come to work.	.73
My attendance at work is above the required level.	.72
I follow informal rules to maintain order.	.79
I protect our hotel’s property.	.86
I say good things about our hotel when talking with outsiders.	.78
I promote the hotel’s products and services actively.	.70
OCB (second order)		.79	.88	.79
OCBI	.97
OCBO	.77

Note. χ²/df = 2.03, CFI = .95, NNFI = .94, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; SNS = social networking sites; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = nonnormed fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

As shown in Table 3, the square root of the AVE of each construct was greater than the interconstruct correlations. Therefore, discriminant validity was ensured.

Table 3.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Study Variables (N = 328).

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Gender	0.59	0.49	—
2. Age	2.14	0.99	—	—
3. Organizational tenure	2.94	2.84	—	—	—
4. Intensity of SNS use	4.28	1.21	—	—	−.08	.74
5. LMX	4.95	0.95	—	—	.05	.41***	.71
6. OCB	5.59	0.85	—	—	.01	.26***	.54***	.89

Note. Gender is coded as 0 = male and 1 = female. Age is coded as 1 = 18–25, 2 = 26–35, 3 = 36–45, 4 = above 45. Diagonal elements are the squared root of AVE for each construct. SNS = social networking sites; LMX = leader–member exchange; OCB = organizational citizenship behavior; AVE = average variance extracted.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Endogeneity Test

It might be debatable that the identified relationship between intensity of SNS use and LMX is subject to reversed causality. An instrumental variable (IV) two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression was performed to alleviate the concern of causal loop induced by endogenous bias arising from unobservable heterogeneity. The validity of this approach is premised on two assumptions: the IV is sufficiently correlated with the endogenous explanatory variable and it is independent of the error term (Staiger & Stock, 1997). F. X. Yang (2020) pointed out that the extent of SNS use was positively associated with its interaction intensity with associates. This study followed Yang’s research to adopt this variable as an instrument, positing that the frequency of using Facebook in general is highly correlated with one’s Facebook use intensity with the supervisor but is unlikely to have a direct impact on LMX.

Endogenous bias was tested using a 2SLS estimation, which corroborates the baseline ordinary least squares (OLS) results (Table 4). First, the weak-instrument Kleibergen–Paap Wald F-statistic is reported at 30.82, exceeding the Stock–Yogo criterion of 10 (Stock & Yogo, 2005a, 2005b). Therefore, the IV is sufficiently correlated with the endogenous variable. Second, the results of the Durbin–Wu–Hausman test showed that the hypothesis of exogeneity is rejected. Based on the 2SLS estimation, the assumed relationship between the intensity of SNS use and LMX remains significant and in the hypothesized direction. In addition, the result of the overidentifying restrictions test shows that there is no such problem in the data. Therefore, endogeneity is not a main issue biasing the results of this study.

Table 4.

Results of Endogeneity Test (N = 328).

Variables	Baseline Estimation (OLS)	IV Estimation (2SLS)
Intensity of Facebook use	0.30***	0.85***
Controls
Gender	0.11	0.15
Age	−0.07	−0.14
Organizational tenure	0.04*	0.07**
F-statistic	14.40	6.70
Endogeneity (DWH) test		20.15
Endogeneity test (DWH) test p		<.001

Note. Coefficients are unstandardized. OLS = ordinary least squares; IV = instrumental variable; 2SLS = two-stage least squares; DWH = Durbin–Wu–Hausman.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Results of Hypotheses Testing

A bootstrapping resampling with 1,000 resamples was adopted in the structural equation modeling data analysis to remedy potential distortion due to limited data (Ader, 2008). As shown in Table 5, the model fits the data reasonably well (χ²/df = 2.30, CFI = .92, NNFI = .92, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06). The test results reveal that intensity of SNS use has a significantly positive impact on LMX (b = .41, p < .001), supporting H1. In addition, LMX has a salient influence on OCB (b = .78, p < .001), providing empirical support for H2.

Table 5.

Structural Parameter Estimates (N = 328).

Variables	LMX	OCB
Gender	.12	.10
Age	−.09*	−.02
Organizational tenure	.04**	.01
Intensity of SNS use	.41***	—
LMX	—	.78***
R ²	.31	.45

Note. Coefficients are unstandardized. χ²/df = 2.30, CFI = .92, NNFI = .92, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06. LMX = leader–member exchange; OCB = organizational citizenship behavior; SNS = social networking sites; CFI = comparative fit index; NNFI = nonnormed fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Test of the Moderation Effects

A comparison between hotel employees of different types was conducted via multigroup analyses. Given the criticism of the chi-square difference test for its sensitivity to sample size (Brannick, 1995), the current research performed the typological comparison using another extensively accepted procedure suggested by Keil et al. (2000) to assess how the path coefficients varied between the four types of hotel employees (Table 6).

Table 6.

Comparison of the Path Coefficients.

Hypothesis	I. Socializers	II. Initiators	III. Followers	IV. Avoidants
H3: Intensity of SNS use → LMX	0.47***	0.39***	0.38***	0.29**
t value	I and IIdf = 159	I and IIIdf = 166	II and IVdf = 158	III and IVdf = 165
H3: Intensity of SNS use → LMX	4.30***	4.24***	−5.92***	−5.70***

Note. Coefficients are unstandardized. Statistics implemented in Keil et al. (2000) to compare corresponding paths:

$S_{p o o l e d} = \sqrt{(\frac{N_{1}}{N_{1} + N_{2} - 2}) \times S E_{1}^{2} + (\frac{N_{2}}{N_{1} + N_{2} - 2}) \times S E_{2}^{2}}$ ,

$t_{p o o l e d} = \frac{P C_{1} - P C_{2}}{S_{p o o l e d} \times \sqrt{\frac{1}{N_{1}} + \frac{1}{N_{2}}}}$ ,

where S_pooled refers to the pooled estimator for the variance, t_pooled refers to the t-statistics with (N₁ + N₂ – 2) degrees of freedom, N_i, SE_i and PC_i (i = 1 and 2) are the sample size, standard error of paths and path coefficients of group i, respectively. SNS = social networking sites; LMX = leader–member exchange.

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The results indicate that the socializers have the strongest coefficients for the path of intensity of SNS use—LMX path (b = .47), followed by the initiators (b = .39) and the followers (b = .38). The avoidants demonstrate the weakest path coefficients (b = .29).

A pairwise comparison was conducted to test the moderating effects.

Whether the friending request is initiated by the employer

The result shows that a significant difference exists between the socializers and the followers, t(166) = 4.24, p < .001, as well as between the avoidants and the initiators, t(158) = −5.92, p < .001.

Whether the employee adopts privacy settings

A significant difference exists between the socializers and the initiators, t(159) = 4.30, p < .001, and between the avoidants and the followers, t(165) = −5.70, p < .001. Therefore, H3 is supported.

In addition, the path coefficient difference between the initiators and the followers is not significant, t(181) = 0.06, ns.

Discussion

SNS connection with one’s supervisor blurs the boundaries between life and work and facilitates the flattening of organizational hierarchies. Subordinate–supervisor interactions through this digital context, therefore, could be more useful than an elevator pitch. This study developed a framework to investigate how SNS interactions with the supervisor could transition to favorable social exchanges in the workplace that, in turn, promotes hotel employees’ voluntary commitment to other coworkers and the company. In addition, a typological comparison was conducted to further explore how the effects of boundary-crossing differ among employees. This study contributes to the literature by filling the research gap on subordinate–supervisor cross-boundary interactions. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed below.

Theoretical Implications

Shifting boundaries with supervisors

As Christakis and Fowler (2009) noted, “The massive scale of online interactions has made possible a wide variety of acquaintance networks that never before existed” (p. 278). The ubiquity of SNS is reshaping individuals’ once well-established boundary-work strategies; the shifting boundaries have also animated the subordinate–supervisor dyad by forging closer relationships in the workplace. This study parallels the research interest in SNS-induced blurred boundaries, introducing positively valenced individual and organizational outcomes in professional arenas. It advances existing literature that predominantly centers on negative consequences of such work–life boundary-spanning behaviors and enriches empirical work that merely scrutinizes cross-boundary relationships with coworkers. In particular, the implications derived from the results are twofold.

First, this research has acknowledged the potential for shifting boundaries with one’s supervisors in cyberspace. Although exploratory research has implied risks of connecting virtually with superiors on SNS—for example, harassment, privacy issues, and discrimination (Peluchette et al., 2013)—the current study has documented favorable outcomes for employees such that subordinate–supervisor social exchanges are encouraged. The positive association between cyberspace interactions and increased LMX illuminates how informal friendships established on SNS could transition to high-quality exchanges in the workplace. Though they are non-work-centric and nurtured based on private exchanges, SNS interactions engender mutual feelings of trust, liking, and loyalty, which will spill over to the workplace and strengthen work-centric ties between employees and their superiors. This echoes the exploratory findings that some employees attempt to seize an opportunity for a closer relationship with their boss that propels them toward success (Peluchette et al., 2013), leading to “in-group” privilege or strengthened social exchanges, as in LMX theories (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Employees will subsequently capitalize on the high-quality LMX for a series of positive follower outcomes, such as a higher level of job satisfaction, justice, and empowerment (Dulebohn et al., 2012). With SNS ushering in a new era of connection, it may not be realistic for individuals to disregard the potential opportunities they can exploit for work. In addition, the results reinforce the contention in previous literature (e.g., Lapierre et al., 2006; Martin et al., 2005) that not only the supervisors but also the subordinates influence the quality of LMX relationships. In cyberspace, the interplay between leaders and followers plays a vital role in affecting LMX. It is this mutuality that invigorates the workplace and pushes forward the development of substantial relationships between the exchange parties.

Second, it is worth noting that favorable outcomes also accrue for the organization. Extant research has rarely probed whether companies could make use of employee cyberspace relationships for a better organizational environment. Peer friendships in the virtual world could be beneficial for both the individuals and the organization, leading to a sense of job satisfaction and embeddedness. The results of the current study have reinforced and extended these findings, contending that online relationships with supervisors engender high-quality LMX, which obligates the employee to reciprocate beyond their required in-role behaviors.

The typological comparison

Four types of employees were delineated in this study. The results underscore the heterogeneity of employees with respect to their SNS interaction behaviors. Employees who demonstrate a proactive personality (i.e., initiating a friend request on SNS) or have a tendency to disclose more information to their supervisors (i.e., not adopting privacy settings) witness a stronger spillover effect from cyberspace to the workplace. Therefore, the socializers who possess both characteristics react most positively to subordinate–supervisor interactions on SNS. They optimistically see the virtual relationship as an opportunity for greater communication development and career progression marked by a show of friendship through high initiatives, pronounced social engagement, and openness. The avoidants, by contrast, are the most passive cohort of employees, who stagnate due to their conservative attitudes toward communication and indifferent outlook on the relationship. They tend to be low-key and less involved in the social world.

The above results parallel discussions on extroverts and introverts in organizations. Similar to the socializers, extroverts are predisposed to be characterized by their tendency to garner social attention and interaction, a trait that is in line with the essence of high LMX. On SNS and virtual communities, they convey a greater psychological need for social value rather than for emotional or financial value (Lu & Hsiao, 2010) and tend to self-disclose more information than introverts in online friendship formation (Peter et al., 2005). In addition, they are considered to be capable of effectively interacting with others, seeking sources of support, and achieving socialization success (Bauer et al., 2006). Previous research on internet use has either supported the rich-get-richer hypothesis, such that favorable outcomes primarily accrue to extroverts (Kraut et al., 2002), or the social compensation hypothesis, which contends that socially anxious parties in real life tend to engage more in online communication, and it is therefore easier for introverts to form virtual friendships (Gross et al., 2002). The results of the current study echo the concepts of the first stream of research.

The findings also imply that more delicate SNS interaction strategies are employed by the remaining two groups: the initiators and the followers. The initiators actively reach out to show their amiableness and willingness to befriend their supervisors. However, they deliberately modify privacy settings on SNS to conceal certain information and make sure that life details are not overshared. The followers, by contrast, readily share their social profiles with their supervisors despite their passivity. When these two groups are compared with the socializers and avoidants, respectively, the rich-get-richer hypothesis again finds empirical support, such that the effect is stronger for those who show a proactive personality or who tend to self-disclose more often. Finally, it is also notable that the initiators and followers do not demonstrate a significant difference regarding the transition from SNS interactions to workplace LMX as both parties hold a characteristic that propels them to be involved in social exchanges. This finding inspires further investigations into employee personalities. While both a proactive personality and a self-disclosure tendency are posited to be positively associated with extroversion (Crant & Bateman, 2000; Seidman, 2013), disparities still exist regarding how the path effects are contingent upon the two factors and more studies are needed to delve into the nuances.

Managerial Implications

It has previously been argued that hierarchical friendships between supervisors and their subordinates cause strain for employees and create tension in the management of personal and organizational boundaries (Morrison & Nolan, 2007). This is a long-standing issue that does not have an easy, black and white answer. As SNS interactions have become an omnipresent ingredient in work relationships, recent studies have encouraged industry practitioners to avail themselves of the opportunities brought by a culture of cyberspace friending (e.g., Bartels et al., 2019; Ollier-Malaterre & Rothbard, 2015; F. X. Yang, 2018; F. X. Yang & Wong, 2019). Despite some potential concerns that have been discussed in previous research, the present study offers managerial implications suggesting that hotel employees and operators should embrace substantial outcomes from the intersection between the personal and professional domains.

SNS provides an extension of workplace relationships, which employees can mobilize to facilitate social exchanges and further their careers. Therefore, employees can establish non-work-centric ties with their superiors through sharing their significant life thoughts and events. A deep exchange of meaningful moments, hobbies, experiences, and feelings can help establish a relationship full of friendly rapport, based on mutual care, trust, and respect. This enables employees and their supervisors to further their mutual understanding and aids communication in the workplace; employees’ extrarole behaviors thus ultimately benefit the organization.

The key lies in handling SNS interactions carefully to avoid potential pitfalls, such as power dynamics and preferential treatment. While employees are encouraged to build a non-work-centric friendship with their supervisors through normal socializing activities—for example, common gatherings, exchanges of information, and visits during holidays—they should also keep in mind that socializing outside of work is not expected to cross the line or violate the rules of the organization. As Peluchette et al. (2013) noted, most firms do not have an explicit policy about how employees should present themselves on SNS platforms. Legal issues arise due to inappropriate posts on SNS, which urges companies to have a basic policy in place, in particular a prohibition on disclosing the employer’s/customers’ confidential information. However, they are not suggested to impose overly broad social media policies or restrict supervisor–subordinate SNS friendships, which may violate privacy laws. Instead, they could advise their employees that it is wise to err on the side of caution when posting online or engage in SNS friendships with associates to avoid potential problems such as harassment, discrimination, and profanity. In addition, managerial employees should be reminded to be well boundaried and not to let cyberspace affinity color their judgment about subordinates’ job performance.

Hotels are not encouraged to create barriers to healthy subordinate–supervisor interactions on SNS. Rather, a communicative culture through cyberspace interaction can be encouraged, especially for those with a social orientation, to help supervisors acquire a strong understanding of their subordinates’ strengths and interests. Employees are also advised to build their “digital cultural capital,” the abilities of connectivity, online self-presentation, and privacy management that help them to better manage work–cyberspace boundaries (Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2019). This, in turn, lubricates workplace cooperation and promotes extrarole behaviors.

Limitations and Future Research

Several limitations of this research should be noted. Although positively valenced workplace outcomes have been documented, there are potential risks to being “too close” in an organizational hierarchy, which have not been discussed in the current study. In addition, common method bias could be a result of the cross-sectional nature that induces limitations on causal assertions. The adoption of a longitudinal, multisource research design is preferable to more fully substantiate cause and effect.

This study also suggested new directions for future research. First, SNS friendship can be a double-edged sword, and future research could further empirically investigate messy politics induced by cross-boundary behaviors such as cronyism, factionism, and alienation. In addition, how a sour relationship or deteriorating friendship jeopardizes the workplace climate could be further discussed. Second, the current research focuses on a subordinate–supervisor dyad; future studies could also probe into the views of other work peers regarding this relationship and test the effects on coworkers’ psychological well-being and job performance. Finally, the current research employs a typological comparison with respect to employee SNS behaviors. Future studies could also investigate how the power of boundary-crossing could be contingent upon other situational factors, such as leadership style and organizational climate. In addition, the disparities between SNS–workplace boundary crossers and noncrossers could be compared with respect to their personal characteristics, time spent working in their current positions, quality of interpersonal relationships, career performance, and psychological well-being. We hope the current study provides a basis for other scholars and promotes more comprehensive investigations into cross-boundary interpersonal relationships in future research.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Fiona X. Yang acknowledges the financial support from University of Macau (SRG2019-00170-FBA).

ORCID iD

Fiona X. Yang

Author Biography

Fiona X. Yang is an assistant professor at Faculty of Business Administration, University of Macau. Her research interests include tourism and hospitality marketing, organizational behaviors and supply chain management.

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