Abstract
The impact of trauma is pervasive, multi-faceted, and longstanding, impacting the mind, body, and spirit. Trauma can unfold with a cascading effect throughout every stage of life, leaving its mark on brain development, stunting social, emotional, and cognitive functioning, promoting risky health behavior, and increasing vulnerability to chronic disease, and ultimately leading to early death. Consistent with this reality, recovery from trauma is a gradual, iterative journey of reshaping or reparenting the brain over time. Trauma is also endemic to the Christian faith and to Christian communities, with its signs and effects persisting after divine and/or conventional healing. This was also the case with Christ, who bore scars and memories of his crucifixion in his post-resurrection body. The substantial though partial and imperfect nature of healing from trauma reflects the dynamics of the already-but-not-yet Kingdom of God in which the world remains in darkness and God’s Kingdom remains incomplete. This reality coexists, however, alongside genuine signs of the eschatological Kingdom that is dawning and an invitation towards Christian community and accompaniment—perhaps the greatest gift of the Holy Spirit for healing and recovery. This paper is part of a special issue on the topic of the Holy Spirit and the healing of the body.
Introduction
I heard about an MK (missionary kid) in a missionary boarding school who was sexually abused by a staff member (who was also a missionary) and her parents informed the school and mission agency but were met with indifference and inaction. The school and agency felt like it might cause problems for them if they exposed this staff member so they encouraged the family to work through this incident privately. This event naturally caused this MK to wonder if God cared about her situation and went a long time believing that her problems (aka her trauma) were not important to God or the church. This type of spiritual trauma leads many MK’s (and adult missionaries as well) to leave the church once they are grown up.
Stories like the one above are far too common among Christian leaders and their families, especially among those of us who have served in ministry contexts ourselves or among those of us whose professions lead us to accompany those who have been emotionally wounded within a ministry context. Bearing witness to intense emotional hurt that is tied not only to the original tragedy but perhaps even more so to the Christian community’s response to the original tragedy can be both perplexing and discouraging, leading to spiritual disillusionment and disorientation among everyone involved. 1 Retraumatization through negative social responses post-trauma is a common pathway (though only one of many potential pathways) through which trauma begets trauma 2 but is wholly preventable, or at the very least something that can be mitigated. Ironically, harm from these negative social responses often occurs from parties who have the intention of helping. It is my hope that this present paper can contribute to such preventative efforts so that Christian communities can more faithfully embody our calling to bring hope and healing (and not harm) to the world.
Though it is understandable that many trauma-survivors would prefer not to talk about their traumatic experiences, the telling of one’s story (in all its beauty and brokenness) is a crucial step towards facilitating healing and recovery. A holistic perspective towards recovery from trauma is necessary because a substantial and growing literature speaks to the potential long-term impact of trauma not only upon one’s mind and emotions, but also upon one’s body 3 and spiritual life as well. 4 Still, speaking of such realities opens up potential for new harm to be done. Reflecting on the implications of such conversations for church life, Serene Jones asks a poignant question: “How can ministers craft sermons that speak to the plight of trauma survivors without retraumatizing them?” 5 Accordingly, and with these cautions duly noted, we will proceed in our conversation on trauma, the Holy Spirit, spiritual formation, and the healing of the mind, spirit, and body.
What is a Trauma?
The ancient Greek word for trauma, τραύμα, means “wound” or “an injury inflicted upon the body by an act of violence.” The image that this term evokes is not just of the moment in which the injury initially occurs, but also of the persistence of the wound and/or the scars that remain long after the initial event passes and which can grow worse over time if not attended to properly. 6 In a similar way, it would be appropriate to view trauma in light of the entire lifespan of the wound incurred—inclusive of the possibility that the signs or scars of this wound might persist indefinitely (at least on this side of the new creation). In fact, theologian Shelly Rambo explains that one of the defining characteristics of trauma is the persistence of its felt impact: “Trauma is what does not go away. It persists in symptoms that live on in the body, in the intrusive fragments of memories that return. It persists in symptoms that live on in communities.” 7 Rambo highlights not only the persistence of emotional and physiological symptoms as they affect an individual post-trauma, but also of the persistence of trauma symptoms upon entire communities and cultures across generations. With notable exceptions,8,9 the literature is only just beginning to explore a broader conception of trauma that takes seriously the implications of historical trauma passed down intergenerationally. For example, sociologists and anthropologists are uncovering how violence shapes entire cultures and regions in the world—from how communities cope with the long-term effects of violence, to the images that they use to make sense of the world. 10
Presently, the clinical definition of trauma that is utilized in the diagnosis of trauma-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSD) consists of situations in which a person has experienced, witnessed, or been confronted with an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of oneself or others. 11 Previous iterations of this clinical definition of trauma included an additional stipulation that the individual manifest an intense emotional reaction to this event, such as fear, helplessness, or horror. However, psychologists have since learned that people demonstrate different emotional reactions to trauma—for example, some take on a fight response and become angry and aggressive while others take on a flight response and engage in avoidant behavior while others take on a freeze response and dissociate. It is possible for individuals to become traumatized even though they may not manifest an intense emotional reaction immediately after the trauma (some may experience a delayed onset of symptoms while others may demonstrate few symptoms or none at all). Subsequent research has also confirmed that intense emotional reactions in fact have little effect on PTSD rates. 12
Trauma can be acute (i.e., a single event that lasts for a limited amount of time) or chronic (i.e., multiple events over an extended period of time). Some scholars and practitioners have also begun to describe some forms of chronic trauma as complex trauma (often occurring throughout one’s childhood) in which the perpetrator was an individual in whom the survivor knew and depended on for survival and safety. 13 Trauma can take several forms, ranging from domestic violence, sexual assault, and child abuse or neglect, to combat trauma, motor vehicle accidents, natural disasters, and medical trauma. Contrary to common sentiment, the majority of the world population (including North America and Western Europe) has experienced or will experience a traumatic event within their lifetime. In other words, without knowing someone’s history, statistics suggest that one is better off guessing that any individual you encounter has already encountered trauma. The World Health Organization estimates a 70.4% prevalence rate of trauma over the course of one’s lifetime, with exposure averaging 3.2 traumas per individual, with some of the most common forms of trauma being sexual assault (15.1%) and the unexpected death of a loved one (11.6%). 14 It is also an empirically-supported assumption that when trauma is present in someone’s history, they typically have experienced multiple traumas rather than a single event. One study examining trauma within the context of urban areas in the United States reported a lifetime prevalence rate closer to 90%. 15
The Impact of Trauma on Mind, Spirit, and Body
In recent decades, a series of heavily replicated longitudinal studies on a particular form of childhood trauma, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), have illuminated the long-term and multifold impact that trauma can have upon an individual across one’s entire lifetime. 16 The implications of these studies are profound, as conventional wisdom previously assumed that as long as a child with a trauma history is given a safe environment the impact of the trauma would subside or naturally resolve over time. However, as Shelly Rambo posited earlier, the effects of trauma persist over time. The ACEs studies provide compelling empirical support for this assertion.
Adverse childhood experiences include certain forms of abuse (physical, emotional, sexual), neglect (physical, emotional), and challenges within one’s household of origin (e.g., mother treated violently, substance abuse in the household, mental illness in the household, parental separation or divorce, an incarcerated family member). The first key finding of these studies is that childhood trauma is common across all populations; almost two-thirds of the participants of the original study (drawn largely from a middle-class suburb in San Diego, California) reported experiencing at least one adverse childhood experience and more than one in five reported three or more ACEs. The major finding of study was that a greater endorsement of adverse experiences during childhood bore major negative implications on health and well-being throughout the lifespan, all the way to early death. These negative implications have a cascading effect that unfolds throughout the different stages of life, compromising brain development during childhood, leading to social, emotional, and cognitive impairment throughout adolescence and young adulthood, promoting the adoption of health risk behavior later in life (e.g., alcohol and substance abuse, 17 smoking, 18 or risky sexual behavior) 19 which in turn increased vulnerability to disease (e.g., cancer, 20 chronic pulmonary disease, 21 autoimmune disease), 22 disability, and long-term social problems.
Recent advances in understanding the holistic impact of trauma have highlighted the effects of trauma on the body (e.g., sensory organs, the nervous system, attention), 23 with particular attention to brain development during early childhood. The neurosequential model of therapeutics (NMT) developed by child psychiatrist Bruce Perry, for example, represents a prominent conceptual framework that guides many practitioners’ assessment and intervention efforts with survivors of childhood trauma. 24 According to NMT, the brain organizes and develops from a bottom-up approach after birth (from the brainstem to the cortex) and depending on the timing of childhood trauma, the development of structures within the brain can be compromised, leading to deficits in perceptual, sensory, motor, and interpersonal capacities. Interventions in support of the recovery of such capacities, accordingly, are to reflect this hierarchical, bottom-up approach to brain development, focusing on potential themes such as safety (brainstem-survival state), connection (limbic system-emotional state), and problem solving (prefrontal lobes-executive state). 25 While a full discussion into this approach to the treatment of childhood trauma is beyond the scope of this present paper, the NMT model highlights the reality that recovery from trauma is a process (as opposed to a one-time event) that involves the gradual, iterative reshaping of one’s brain over time. This reshaping of one’s brain is accomplished primarily through consistent and attuned social interactions within new and/or improved relationships, which in turn facilitates greater brain integration, clearer thoughts, and improved relationships within the survivor. 26
Many of the common mental and emotional sequelae of trauma are codified within the diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These include the re-experiencing or intrusion of symptoms in which the survivor feels as if they are experiencing the traumatic event all over again (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts, flashbacks), symptoms of hyperarousal or hypervigilance (where the person is in a constant state of alertness, often interpreting neutral events as threats to their safety or well-being), negative changes in thinking and mood (shame, persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs about oneself, others, or the world), and avoidance behavior (emotional numbing, alcohol/substance abuse, avoiding thoughts or people or places, self-harm). 27 Subsequent research has linked PTSD with negative mental and emotional outcomes such as suicide, 28 anger problems, 29 and depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and other comorbid psychiatric disorders. 30
Last, although less is known about the impact of trauma upon one’s spiritual life, an emerging literature suggests that the damage of trauma upon deeply held spiritual/religious beliefs can be substantial. Even when the emotional symptoms of PTSD subside, preliminary evidence suggests that spiritual struggles related to trauma continue to persist. 31 These spiritual struggles may involve a loss of purpose and meaning, questions related to why God allowed the event to happen, and/or disruptions of previously-held notions about God, faith, the problem of evil, and/or religious leaders. Notably, these effects apply not only for those who have experienced trauma first-hand, but also for those who have indirectly witnessed the trauma of others. 32 Speaking of the latter, Dombo and Grey assert that the hallmark of vicarious traumatization (i.e., the cumulative effects of indirect exposure to trauma over time) is in fact disrupted spirituality. 33 An emerging literature base also speaks of moral injury as a potential consequence or correlate of trauma. In unusually stressful circumstances, people may perpetuate, fail to prevent, or witness events that contradict deeply held moral beliefs (e.g., killing or injuring others during wartime combat, surviving an illness or situation where others perished, medical professionals being forced to make life and death decisions in the aftermath of a mass trauma event with limited time and resources), which can further complicate a survivor’s recovery process. 34
In summary, the impact of trauma upon a survivor can be pervasive, multi-faceted, and longstanding—something about trauma persists and won’t go away. Research on adverse childhood experiences indicates that if left unaddressed, trauma can unfold with a cascading effect throughout every stage of life, leaving its mark on brain development, stunting social, emotional, and cognitive functioning, promoting risky health behavior, and increasing vulnerability to chronic disease, ultimately leading to early death. Consistent with this reality, recovery from trauma (especially when incurred during early childhood) is a gradual, iterative journey of reshaping or reparenting the brain over time. Trauma also bears significant implications upon one’s emotional life; it is tied to several outcomes such as problems with anger, depression, anxiety, suicide, and substance abuse. And last, trauma can profoundly disrupt deeply held spiritual and religious beliefs, leading to questions about previously-held notions about God and/or religious leaders, the problem of evil, and shame related to moral injury. These realities of trauma provide a backdrop for our next section, where the focus of our discussion will shift to recovery from trauma and the potential role of the Holy Spirit in this process.
The Holy Spirit and Recovery from Trauma: Key Principles
Coexisting alongside the sobering realities mentioned above is the good news that resilience and recovery from trauma are both possible and common. Research suggests that the majority of individuals who are exposed to trauma follow either a trajectory of recovery or a trajectory of resilience. 35 Recovery connotes a trajectory in which pre-trauma functioning temporarily gives way to psychopathology and then gradually returns to original levels. Resilience, on the other hand, connotes a trajectory in which an individual is able to maintain a stable equilibrium of relatively healthy levels of psychological and physical functioning even soon after exposure to a trauma. These trends of resilience and recovery from trauma (often with little or no professional intervention) are so common that the trauma literature speaks of the natural recovery process from trauma 36 and suggest that chronic trauma-related conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder reflect a disruption somewhere in the natural recovery process. Moreover, an emerging literature speaks not just of recovery and resilience from trauma, but also of post-traumatic growth. 37 It is important to note that these trends, however, can be complicated by the age at which trauma occurs (with increased complications for trauma at earlier ages), by traumas that are sexual in nature, and by traumas that involve individuals the survivor depended upon for survival and safety. I would also add that for Christians, trauma recovery can also be complicated or supported by the manner in which the Christian faith is evoked or integrated into the process. In the following section, I will outline several key principles and practices for how the Christian faith and the work of the Holy Spirit can be invited into one’s journey of recovery from trauma.
Trauma is Endemic to the Christian Faith and to Christian Communities
A proper baseline to begin this conversation about the Christian faith and trauma recovery is to emphasize that trauma is endemic to the Christian faith. More than that—the Christian faith is built upon a trauma—the trauma of Jesus Christ when he died on the cross and then resurrected from the dead (cf. 1 Corinthians 15:3). Most of the twelve disciples were familiar with trauma, as was the early church. And as noted earlier in this paper, this trend continues to be true with the church today—even though it might not be openly discussed in contemporary congregations, statistics suggest that the majority of Christians around the world (including North America) have experienced or will experience trauma within their lifetime, with the majority experiencing multiple traumas within their lifetime. In fact, recent studies examining the prevalence of trauma among current and future clergy have suggested that Christian leaders as a whole have experienced higher rates of trauma and in particular, childhood relational trauma (e.g., childhood experiences of emotional abuse, living with someone with mental illness, sexual abuse) compared to the general population. 38 Another study found that clergy reported an average of 2.27 lifetime traumas, along with clinically significant trauma symptoms related to not only their own trauma history but also to indirect exposure to trauma within their church community. 39 This finding is not surprising given that pastors often represent the first line of responders to trauma and crises that beset a community. 40
All of this brings us to the first principle of trauma recovery: trauma is not something ‘out there’ in faraway lands. Trauma is here, in our communities, in our leadership, in our faith—and this has been the case since the very beginning of Christianity. Because Christ himself suffered one of the most gruesome forms of trauma, he not only understands and can sympathize with those of us who have survived trauma (cf. Hebrews 4:15), but he also offers comfort (cf. 2 Corinthians 1:3-4) and accompaniment (cf. Isaiah 43:2) and invites us to comfort and accompany each other as well (cf. Galatians 6:2). For reasons and mysteries beyond the scope of this paper, the Christian faith does not seem to exempt Christians from either tragedy or trauma; in fact, the opposite seems to be the case (cf. 1 Peter 4:12-13). In light of this, I would like to suggest that speaking openly about trauma not only validates and normalizes shared human experience and opens up possibilities for accompaniment and healing from the Holy Spirit and from Christian community, but it also reclaims an important aspect of the gospel and of Christian life.
The Persistence of Trauma within the Context of Healing
As noted earlier, one of the hallmarks of trauma is that its effects persist over time, even after someone has done the inner work necessary throughout their recovery process. That is why I hesitate to use definitive past-tense language (e.g., “healed”) when I speak of the process of trauma recovery. While it’s certainly possible to recover or even grow from an encounter with trauma, the trauma will always remain a part of one’s story even if it doesn’t shape or determine the rest of the story. From a clinical perspective, recovery from trauma denotes a return to baseline levels of functioning and/or symptoms. It doesn’t suggest that one forgets what happened (typically, traumas are never forgotten) or that the memories of the trauma disappear or are now to be interpreted in only positive terms. It also doesn’t imply that the survivor is no longer impacted by the natural implications of the trauma—for those who have lost loved ones, for example, the recovery process doesn’t spare us from the need to rebuild a life without who or what we have lost. Life post-trauma is usually never the same and that doesn’t change—even when healing is accomplished primarily through an extraordinary supernatural work of the Holy Spirit or through more conventional means such as mental health counseling. And this paradoxical persistence or ongoingness of trauma applies to the case of Jesus’ death on the cross as well.
After Jesus died on the cross and resurrected from the dead, he appeared to his disciples and said, “Peace be with you.” Then, he addressed Thomas specifically and said to him, “Put your finger here and see my hands. Reach out your hand and put it in my side. Do not doubt but believe.” 41 The blessing of peace given by Jesus initially is one that is repeated across multiple appearances to the disciples post-resurrection and is one laden with community significance for several reasons, including its attunement with the emotional state of his disciples during this period. 42 It is important to emphasize here that even after Jesus had conquered death and resurrected from the dead, the wounds and scars from his trauma persisted. In fact, the persistence of these scars, even in Jesus’ resurrection body, were the grounds upon which Jesus verified his identity with the disciples as well as the basis for his admonition to not doubt and believe. Several interrelated motifs are at play within the broader context of the disciples’ encounters with the post-resurrection Jesus: Jesus appearing as their crucified Lord (with the wounds still visible), Jesus verifying that he is nonetheless alive, and the subsequent empowerment of the disciples by the Holy Spirit to carry on his mission. 43 These three realities (his wounds, him being alive, his mission) co-exist alongside each other and the latter two are not threatened by the presence or persistence of the former. Rather, they build off each other; the paradox of the wounded healer—one called to look after their own wounds while at the same time ready to heal the wounds of others—is a metaphor rich in biblical allusion rooted in the person and work of Christ. 44 Moreover, even in heaven during the final consummation of the Kingdom of God, the memory of Jesus’ trauma on the cross is not forgotten as he continues to be referred to as the “Lamb that was slaughtered.” 45 Now, if the memories of trauma along with the wounds and scars of trauma paradoxically persist even in Jesus after he conquered death, and again even after he returns and consummates his Kingdom, how much more will such fragments of trauma persist in us—even after valid and substantial works of healing, whether it is supernatural in nature through the Holy Spirit or through more conventional means such as mental health counseling? Indeed, our understanding of what it means to be “healed” from trauma must reckon with the reality of the persistence and ongoingness of trauma. Again, even extraordinary supernatural movements of the Holy Spirit in the area of emotional healing (which I both fully validate and have personally experienced) 46 do not imply that the memories or the wounds and scars from this event disappear. Rather, healing suggests that we have grown to make peace with these memories, that we have grown to accept that these scars are a part of our story, and that we have shared these scars with God who continues to bear his own scars as well (cf. Hebrews 4:14-16).
Divine Healing within the Context of the Already-But-Not-Yet Kingdom of God
Works of divine healing reflect the reality that God cares deeply about the plight of humanity. Not only so, the doctrine of the incarnation affirms the reality that God is also both personally and intimately familiar with this plight. The ultimate purpose of this work of divine healing can often transcend the healing itself—drawing people closer to God, strengthening faith in God, cultivating love for God, and contributing to the fulfillment of God’s mission. 47 Divine healing is a manifestation of God’s grace through the Holy Spirit which can involve physical healing, 48 emotional healing, 49 and spiritual healing, including exorcism. 50 Though these various forms of healing can occur on their own in isolation, they can at times be interconnected. The discernment of these interconnections requires discernment, great care and concomitant spiritual giftings due to the possibility of harm and/or retraumatization when wounds of primarily a physical or emotional nature are incorrectly attributed to being primarily spiritual and/or demonic and someone prematurely attempts deliverance ministry. For example, in suspected cases of demon possession, a thorough psychological assessment battery with special attention to the dissociative disorders in particular is critical. 51 Moreover, any attempt at deliverance ministry must also be non-coercive, involving the active consent and participation of the individual. Ideally, it should be done in conjunction with psychotherapy.
Even when the Holy Spirit engages an individual with a special work of divine healing, and especially when emotional healing and trauma are involved, this healing, while substantial, will still be partial and/or imperfect. In light of this, it is recommended that those involved with divine healing avoid the use of definitive, black-and-white, past-tense language to describe the work of healing. Just as Christ’s resurrection does not nullify the tragedy, injustice, or pain of his death on the cross, emotional healing from trauma, even when it is of divine origin, similarly does not justify or nullify the tragedy, injustice, or pain of that trauma. Rather, through a special movement of grace, the survivor moves towards making peace with the pain of the trauma and finding meaning in the trauma—both of which are prominent factors that promote trauma recovery and resilience identified by the research literature. 52 But whatever meaning one might find in the trauma will remain partial and imperfect on this side of heaven. Part of the reason why this is the case is because evil cannot be fully or adequately conceptualized only in the abstract, 53 which is why some have described the experience of trauma as bearing the unbearable and speaking the unspeakable. 54
Although divine healing is possible, it is not guaranteed. Many prayers for healing are left unanswered. John Wimber, the founder of the Vineyard movement, suggested that unanswered prayer does not necessarily reflect a lack of gifting. Rather, he identified a number of pitfalls common among individuals learning to utilize the spiritual gift of healing: 1) Focusing too much on healing at the physical level, to the exclusion of the spiritual and emotional, 55 2) prematurely stopping prayer out of disappointment that God’s response is not instantaneous, 56 3) not praying specifically (e.g., not addressing specific needs for emotional healing related to the physical symptoms), 57 and 4) doubt.
Concerning the latter, special care should be given to avoid blaming or inferring blame on the survivor of trauma by suggesting that their lack of healing is an indication that they lack faith. Such a claim not only reflects a flawed and reductionistic view of divine healing but is a common pathway for survivors to experience further hurt and retraumatization. The work of divine healing is full of paradox and mystery, reflecting the Kingdom of God as already-but-not yet. 58 This is evident even in the life of Wimber himself, who healed hundreds from their physical ailments over the course of his lifetime of ministry, and yet struggled himself with inoperable cancer for many years, the sickness that eventually claimed his life. 59 The already-but-not-yet Kingdom of God acknowledges that the world is in darkness, the righteous suffer, and God’s rule is not by any means complete on earth. And so, many times, faithful Christians remain unhealed without any discernable reason, despite persistent appeals by many who have successfully prayed for healing in the past (cf. Hebrews 11:39-40). In such circumstances, one must respect and leave room for divine prerogative. To ask for divine healing without any accompanying ‘nevertheless not my will but thy will be done’ poses an attitude out of keeping with God-centered and humble prayer. 60
A nuanced perspective on divine healing would also account for the activity of Satan, knowing that as long as he rules on earth (cf. Ephesians 2:2), not every prayer will be answered according to one’s hopes. Satan’s reign is what makes spiritual warfare genuine, rather than staged. 61 In fact, this is exactly how Wimber would frame the activity of prayer for healing: a dynamic and divine confrontation between the Kingdom of God and the kingdom of darkness. By praying for the sick, Christians respond to Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 6:12, “for our struggle is not against blood and flesh but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers of this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places.” 62 And paradoxically, the already-but-not-yet Kingdom of God also sees the eschatological Kingdom dawning, along with signs (albeit partial and imperfect) of its coming that are already apparent. 63
Conclusion
The story of Christ in the biblical narrative, similar to the dynamics of recovery from trauma, is paradoxical. Scripture bears witness not only of trauma and death, but also of hope and resurrection. These two motifs persist and co-exist alongside each another without cancelling each other out and without reaching a clear resolution—at least on this side of heaven. Speaking of the resurrection now, one of the most powerful signs of Christ’s resurrection in the early church was the profound unity experienced among his disciples (cf. Acts 4:32). This depth of Christian fellowship among believers living in community with one another is one of the most precious and powerful gifts of the Holy Spirit. 64 I believe this point provides a fitting closing to this discussion on trauma healing and the Holy Spirit because the vast majority of trauma healing and recovery facilitated by the Holy Spirit is actually accomplished through mundane acts of kindness and accompaniment among the communion of saints. Healing from trauma is tied less to momentary and extraordinary supernatural movements, although these certainly have their place within God’s vast and ongoing work of bringing hope and healing to the world. Rather, it is tied more to long-term relational presence and care, to bearing witness to the stories of others, and to sustained relational accompaniment as trauma survivors go about the long journey of finding and telling a new and different story of their life. 65 This point ties closely to the empirical literature on trauma as well, as trauma research has identified ongoing emotional and social support as one of the most robust predictors of recovery from trauma. 66 In fact, some studies have found that the lack of social support more strongly predicted the onset of post-traumatic stress disorder than other factors such as prior trauma history, prior mental illness, and even the severity of the traumatic event itself. 67 Recent research has also highlighted the positive impact of social support from religious communities in particular, in the aftermath of mass trauma such as natural disasters. 68 Having one’s trauma seen by others, witnessed by others, and held by others is perhaps the most crucial ingredient to healing. 69 When the church participates by holding trauma, we point survivors to the reality that God holds their trauma too. As the Apostle Paul admonished the church in Galatia, “Bear one another’s burdens, and in this way you will fulfill the law of Christ.”70 According to psychological research, to bear one another’s burdens not only fulfills the law of Christ, but it participates with the Holy Spirit in healing trauma.
