Factors influencing the willingness,and reluctuance of lecturers to embrace learning management systems in two selected ghanaian universities

Abstract

The current surge in the usage of Internet, multimedia, and educational technologies as well as the exigencies of the COVID-19 pandemic has imposed ICT-driven education globally. One of the tools deployed for ICT-mediated teaching and learning is the Learning Management System (LMS). Unfortunately, some lecturers’ adoption or use of the LMS for teaching in Ghana appears to be below par, and if the apparent deficiencies are not tackled, e-learning education in the country could lag behind international standards in the foreseeable future. The purpose of the study was to explore factors influencing lecturers’ use or non-use of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in Ghanaian universities, in the hope of strengthening e-learning education in Ghana. Judgmental sampling was utilized to select twenty lecturers from the focal universities. A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data, and the data were analysed thematically. The functionality the LMS, its ease of use and the user’s prior knowledge of ICT were some of the factors influencing the adoption and use of the LMS for teaching. Then the nature of the course, technical and infrastructural deficiencies and the difficulty of use of the LMS account for the failure to use the LMS. The study concludes that factors that encourage LMS adoption and use must be given prominence so as to promote effective use of the system. Factors hampering the adoption and use of the system must be tackled or regulated. The study recommends that awareness creation, training and motivation must focus largely on Non-users. Also, challenges faced by Non-users and Users of the system must be addressed by university administrators in order to enhance the use of the system and increase the hybrid/online educational competitiveness of their respective universities.

Keywords

Learning Management System Users and Non-users of Learning Management systems ICT-driven education e-learning education sakai/moodle learning management system

Introduction

The impact of the Internet, online social media, mobile phones and educational technologies on higher education institutions has been phenomenal (Adedoja and Abimbade, 2016; Chai and Fan, 2016; Grgurović, 2014; Henriksen, Mishra and Fisser, 2014; Lofstrom and Nevgi, 2008). The adoption and use of Learning Management Systems (LMSs), the focus of this study, facilitate independent and learner-centred learning. LMSs are used for synchronous and asynchronous academic discourses, including organizing quizzes and for grading in both hybrid and fully online learning settings (Alghamdi and Bayaga, 2016; Coates et al., 2005). LMS, as a tool of e-learning education also allows students who are workers with very busy schedules to have education without commuting to campus, thus eliminating time, space, cost and access constraints in education. In addition, it provides convenience, flexibility and comfort for both students and lecturers (Abdallah, 2009; Picciano, 2009; Selim, 2007; Tagoe, 2013). LMS has been recognised as one of the key drivers of improved teaching and learning and the transformation of higher education. As a result, governments and universities have injected huge amounts of capital into building ICT-driven education architectures (Pelgrum, 2001; Teo, 2012). Numerous studies have also revealed additional benefits of e-learning education (including Kwofie and Henten, 2011; Majhi and Mahrana, 2010; Makura, 2014; Marfo and Okine, 2010; Mullamaa, 2010; Pretorius et al., 2012; Tok and Sora, 2013)

Despite its benefits, studies have also shown that LMS adoption and integration into teaching and learning has been limited due to lack of teachers’ prior ICT skills and confidence, poor pedagogical training, unavailability of suitable educational software and hardware as well as preference for traditional system of instruction (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012; Ngololo et al., 2012; Sarfo and Yidana, 2016). Additionally, the nature of technology, institutional factors, attitudes, preparedness for a change as well as availability of technical support have been found to determine teachers’ adoption of technology for the teaching function (Gautreau, 2011; Lim and Chai, 2008; Tondeur, van Braak and Valcke, 2008).

It must be also noted that self-efficacy, institutionalization, enablers, and utility have also been found as factors that determine the use of technology for educational purposes. Ngololo et al. (2012) in their study also found that negative attitudes towards computers and lack of training have stifled the adoption of technology for specific tasks. Furthermore, Mukoko (2012) maintains that educational background, age, perceived usefulness (utility) and perceived ease of use play a crucial role in the adoption and use of educational technologies. Besides, other studies have revealed that enthusiasm and desire to learn how to use ICT, knowledge and skills that enable easy use of ICT devices, access to technology, a fast Internet connection and software availability together inform the adoption and use of educational technology (Kearsley, 2002).

The adoption of technology by teachers is conceived as an undertaking that develops through varied levels and forms, such as being aware of the availability of the technology, acceptance, and application of it in the classroom (Christensen and Knezek, 2008). These levels entail a number of constraints on teachers’ use of educational technologies. The effective implementation of ICT in schools also includes the implementation of policies and practices that simultaneously consider the methods by which teachers learn technical skills as well as the cultural, social and historical contexts of learning (MacCallum, 2008). Such methods have also hampered adoption and use of educational technology for teaching and learning. There is evidence suggesting that faculty members are underutilizing educational technological tools, or in some cases have not adopted the technology at all owing to fear and other factors (Dahlstrom et al., 2014; Fathema, Shannon and Ross, 2015; Jaschik and Mishram, 2014; Tagoe, 2013; University of Ghana, 2009). Additionally, poor learner support services and lack of ICT training for lecturers and students have also been observed as frustrating the use of LMS (Awidi, 2008; Boateng, 2015; Chris, 2016; Sarfo and Yidana, 2016).

Statement of the problem

It is the effective use of educational technology for teaching delivery that determines the success of e-learning programmes, and not merely the availability of the technology (Selim, 2007). Consequently, scouting qualitative factors that affect adoption and use of LMS is essential; yet not many studies have been conducted in this area. In addition, studies conducted on the educational technology users’ opinions, perceptions, attitudes, behaviour and beliefs have become extremely valuable in identifying factors influencing the adoption and use of LMSs in educational institutions (Lee, Hsieh and Hsu, 2010).

Meanwhile, universities in Ghana have not done many studies on the subject, and this poses a challenge to ICT-driven education in Ghana. It was also necessary to carry out the present study because higher educational institutions had invested massively in e-learning infrastructure, had formulated elaborate policies to guide and manage an e-learning educational programme; and had as well provided e-learning training for lecturers. Yet not much has been gained due to the perfunctory adoption, under-utilization, and neglect of the Sakai/Moodle LMS (Fathema, Shannon and Ross, 2015; Tagoe, 2013; University of Ghana, 2009). More interestingly, although with the upsurge of COVID-19 in Ghana universities migrated to online education, only few tools of the LMS system such as the resource and audio tools were being used by most of the lecturers. It is partly for these reasons that the researchers of the present study decided to investigate why some lecturers were not using the LMS or were not using it effectively. Furthermore, the motivation for the study was the inadequacy of studies on the adoption and use of Sakai/Moodle LMS for teaching in Ghanaian universities (Awidi, 2008; Tagoe, 2013).

The purpose

The purpose of the current study was to explore factors that influence lecturers’ use or non-adoption of the Learning Management Systems (LMSs) in Ghanaian universities, with a view to offering solutions, where necessary, to improve e-learning education in Ghana. If Ghana succeeds in e-learning education other countries in Africa might even benefit from Ghana’s experience.

Research questions

What are the factors influencing the use or non-use of the Sakai/Moodle Learning Management System in the universities in Ghana? For convenience, the research questions for the current study are stated here (below) to establish the link and their derivation (instead of at the methodology section of the current paper). The research questions, which informed the interview questions, are:

i. What factors influence the use of LMS?

ii. How can the use of the LMS be enhanced?

iii. What are the barriers confronting the use of the LMS by the Users?

iv. In view of non-users, what are the factors accounting for the non-use of the LMS?

Theoretical framework

The current study was built on the foundation of two main theories, namely, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989) and Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) (Rogers 2003). Technological Acceptance Model (TAM) factors such as Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness and Actual Use (Davis et al., 1989), and Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) factors such as Relative advantage, Complexity and Compatibility (Rogers, 2003) were adopted for the present study. It is worth noting that in the current study, perceived usefulness (TAM) and relative advantage (IDT) are deemed to have the same meaning and are referred to as utility of use in the present paper. Utility or usefulness means one assumes that the application of technology innovation to work enhances one’s job performance compared to the lack of it. Perceived ease of use (a variable of TAM) and complexity of use (a variable of IDT) also carry the same meaning and are interpreted in the current study as simplicity of use. Simplicity of use is the view that the ease of use of a particular technological innovation influences its adoption and use (Davis et al., 1989). Compatibility (IDT) on the other hand, is perceived to be the degree to which technological innovation is consistent with one’s job owing to one’s prior experiences with the use of ICT tools as well as one’s beliefs, values and needs. Actual Use (AU) implies the acceptance and application of the LMS to one’s job. Other terms used in the study are Enablers, Self-Efficacy and Institutionalization. The concept of Enablers implies the provision of facilitating conditions that enhance the adoption of e-leaning. Institutionalization means using written policies and action to guide and persuade the adoption and use of e-learning. Self-efficacy reflects confidence in one’s ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social environment, especially in using technology for study or work.

Research designs, population and participants

A multi-case study that is classified as a design under the qualitative paradigm was employed. It is a multi-case study because two different universities treated differently were used as the bases for the study. The population of the study comprised lecturers from University of Ghana {Legon) and University of Education (Winneba, also in Ghana) who used the LMS acquired by their university for teaching, and those who were aware of the availability of the LMS in the university but for some reason were not using it. Fourteen (14) lecturers, seven each from the University of Education (Winneba) and University of Ghana (Legon) were selected to participate in the study. They comprised eight males and six females who used Sakai or MOODLE to teach. Additionally, six Non-users, three each from both universities under review were also interviewed. These Non-users comprised three males and three females.

Interview guide

A semi-structured interview guide was used because of its capacity to engage a deep journey of the worldview of the participants on social issues. Additionally, the interview guide permits probes of answers of participants and enables co-creation of meaning between the researcher and the participants (DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree, 2006; Smith and Orsbon, 2003). Two separate semi-structured interview guides were used: one for Users of Sakai/Moodle LMS, and another for the Non-Users. The interview questions were based on the research questions set in the introduction section. The interview guide for lecturers who use Sakai/Moodle LMS for teaching contained the following interview questions: 1. Can you tell me about the factors that influence your decision to adopt and use LMS? 2. How do you think LMS can be upgraded to broaden its uses? 3. What are the challenges/barriers confronting the use of the Sakai/Moodle LMS? Interview questions for lecturers who did not use LMS were: 1. What do you know about LMS? 2. Why are you not using LMS?

Sample size and sampling method

A judgmental sampling technique was used because the research participants were perceived to be information-rich cases. Sampling determination under qualitative study does not need population size in terms of number because the interest is not meant to arrive at a representative sample size. What was important in this study was the institutions being studied and the number of participants intentionally selected for being deemed information-rich cases. The gender components and other demographics have been captured but not the size of the population from which participants were selected. A qualitative study requires that the sample size should be small enough to manage the material, and adequate to develop a new and deep textual understanding of the experience of the research participants (Sandelowski, 1995). Furthermore, qualitative data should be enough to demonstrate patterns. Finally, the principles of saturation guided the sampled cases. With saturation, interviews were terminated when participants were no longer adding any new perspectives to the data. Only lecturers from University of Ghana and University of Education (Winneba) who were fulltime and used Sakai/Moodle LMS in one form or the other were selected for interviews. Furthermore, the selection also included those who were not using the LMS at all. Their inclusion was important for exploring reasons underlying their Non-use of the Open Source LMS.

Data collection procedure and methods

Participants were informed at least a week or two before the interview time and were reminded 2 days to the pending engagement to enable them plan for the interview. A face-to-face interview was conducted in English language, and in some cases, it was supported by phone calls for probes. That was convenient to the participants while they were at their respective campuses. Each interview lasted 15–30 min and was digitally recorded based on the participant’s consent. Ethical clearance was obtained from the college of Humanities of University of Ghana, while informed consent was provided by the interviewees.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis was conducted in the field. First, the digitally recorded data were played back, listened to carefully and transcribed verbatim. Statements that were similar were assembled and categorized under a theme. Participants’ narratives were selected to provide quotes to describe and reinforce specific themes and were also interpreted by the researcher, thus supporting the co-creation of knowledge principle under the constructionist’s paradigm (Smith and Osborn, 2003). The analysis interacted with implicit and explicit ideas, untangling some level of patterned response or meaning within the dataset following Braun and Clarke (2006).

Trustworthiness

Some research participants of the current study were consulted to review and affirm the accuracy of data solicited from them. The triangulation of data from two universities and the engagement of internal peer review for analysis and interpretation of data enhanced the credibility of the paper.

Presentation of results

Based on the research questions and interview data, four (4) key factors were elicited by the study. These have been classified under Users of the LMS as well as Non-users. The following were the factors (and their subthemes):

(1) Factors determining Use (sub-themes: Prior Knowledge, Self-Efficacy, Institutionalization, Enablers, Utility of Use, and Ease of Use). These factors tackled the research question: What factors influence the use of the Sakai/Moodle LMS.

(2) Barriers to the Use of Educational Technology (sub-themes: Lack of Technical Knowhow, Inappropriate Faculty Attitude, and Lack of Appropriate Software. These factors addressed the research question: What are the barriers confronting the use of the Learning Management System?

It is important to add that this question was posed to the users of the system.

(3) Reasons for the Non-Use of Sakai/MOODLE LMS (subthemes: Nature of Course, Infrastructural Challenges, Alternative Platforms, Platform Restrictiveness and Complexity). These factors responded to the research question: 1. What are the factors accounting for the non-use of the LMS?

(4) Enhancing Usage/(subthemes: Training, Fast Internet Connection, Tying the Use of LMS to Promotion). These factors provided answers to the research question: 1. How can the use of the LMS be enhanced?

Factors influencing use

Prior knowledge in the use of ICT

Some participants maintain that prior knowledge and skill in the use of educational technology motivate adoption and use of the LMS. As seen in the narration below:

I have skills in Microsoft Teams, Excel and PowerPoint presentation. I use Google Scholar for research. As a result, using Sakai LMS was simple for me. (Male, Participant 6)

Another respondent shared a similar perspective:

I used Canvas LMS for teaching in my former University. Consequently, using Sakai LMS was very simple for me. (Male, Participants 12)

On the same theme, a participant also stated:

I have been teaching Wiki, e-Portfolio, blog, etcetera several years now. Thus accessing Sakai LMS was simple for me. (Male, Participant 6)

It can be deduced from the narratives above that having prior technological skills facilitates easy migration to the use of the LMS. Prior knowledge in technology use sharpened by training and practice augurs well for a smooth transition to the use of other educational technologies.

Self-efficacy

The remarks below show a response to the current theme.

My interest, propensity and alacrity to continue to use the LMS platform is very high. (Male, Participant 8, 20)

Some participants shared a similar position but pointed out that the adoption and use must be approached patiently and piecemeal. The narration below demonstrates it:

In my view, when technology (LMS), with all its features is adopted and used well, a lot could be attained. However, the adoption and integration process will take some time. (Male, Participant 9,19)

The voice above demonstrates that one key factor for the use of the technology is one’s confidence/conviction and readiness to use the technology herein referred to as self-efficacy.

Institutionalization

Some participants pointed out that they had been compelled to use Sakai/Moodle because their school/faculty had made it compulsory for use. An interviewee stated:

Using the LMS was compulsory in my previous university. Refusal to use it means one does not want to work anymore with the University. (Male, Participants 6, 18)

This response implies that a mandatory policy for LMS adoption for teaching and learning compels the adoption and use of the LMS.

Another participant stated:

I have decided to use MOODLE LMS because it is mandatory for faculty members to use it for the Distance Learning programme. Additionally, it helps to address the threat of the COVID-19 incursion. (Male, Participant 7, 9 and 14)

Refusal to use the LMS when it is made mandatory means one’s contract might not be renewed or one’s promotion prospects might be hampered. This factor seems the most compelling incentive for the adoption and use of the system. However, it is more likely to favour millennials who are normally digital natives as opposed to digital immigrants.

Enablers

Reliability of electric power supply, fast Internet connectivity, technical support, training, and promotion mechanisms, herein referred to as enablers, influence the adoption and use of the LMS. In relation to the current theme, a participant remarked:

The technical people are always ready to offer their technical support anytime they are needed. The University also runs several training programmes for its faculty members. (Male and female, Participants 4, 8)

The above participants make it clear that the availability of institutional training and technical staff support made them easily become conversant with the use of the LMS. A participant also stated:

There is a provision in the University’s policy that when a faculty member uploads a course on the Moodle platform, it counts towards one’s promotion. This has positively influenced my use of the Moodle LMS. (Male, Participant 10)

Utility of use (Usefulness)

In response to the current theme, one interviewee stated:

The Sakai LMS is very useful. I can be in the office and still teach my students who are geographically dispersed. (Female, Participant 1)

Other interviewees also remarked:

I organize test and quizzes using the LMS. (Female, Participant 2)

It is cost saving since there are no photocopies of lecture notes. (Female, Participant 4)

The discussion forum is interactive and facilitates collaboration. Learners argue and comment intelligently on others’ work on the platform. (Male, Participant 8)

With the availability of power and Internet connectivity, teachers can teach without the distance barrier. Using LMS allows lecturers to have access to a larger audience. The universities gain from the increased student admission.

Ease of use

In response to the current theme, an interviewee commented:

I have the skills to use the LMS. Adopting and using the LMS was simple for me. (Female, Participant 4, 12)

I have adopted the use of the Sakai LMS because it makes my teaching work simple. Additionally, I find it easy to use the LMS because I had used a similar LMS several years earlier. (Male, participant 5, 9)

From the quotes above, the simplicity of the system may be confirmed as a factor that accounts for faculty members’ adoption and use of the Sakai LMS. This means if the system is made easier to use, adoption and use will be further encouraged. Availability of regular training and technical support will also help in this direction.

Challenges associated with the use of technology

Participants in this study showed that there were several challenges that had to be addressed if blended learning would be boosted in Ghana and Africa in general. One such challenge is faculty attitude. This is about the faculty mindset that influences their ultimate decision to adopt and use the LMS or not. A participant elaborated on this attitude:

There are still large numbers of lecturers who are very slow in adopting and using the LMS in the University due to their phlegmatic and stoic attitude as well as poor motivation from the University. Faculty adoption of ICT is very necessary for students’ adoption too. (Male, Participant, 12)

Laggards and slow adopters are a problem to effective e-learning practice. Universities should be aware of these and address them.

A second challenge with blended learning relates to deficiencies in the technical operation and the technical know-how of Users. A participant stated:

Poor Internet connectivity, low band-with and downloading challenges are glaring. I also face a problem linking the LMS to the assessment management system (OSIS). (Female, participant 5)

Yet another remarked:

In terms of assessment, if the student opens a quiz on two different browsers at the same time, the student can cheat because the MOODLE instantly gives the correct answers after one submits the answers. The students using a different browser then quickly checks the correct answers and use the second browser to upload the correct answers. Students do this quickly within 20 minutes. Several lecturers teaching blended learning without this knowledge, may be outsmarted by smart students. (Male, Participant 13)

On the challenges with students with Special Needs, a participant reported as follows:

The special education students such as the visually impaired need a software called Jaws but this is not provided by the University. I have 12 students who have a challenge with their sight, and they always feel neglected. The hearing-impaired students also do not have interpreter films which should been embedded on the Moodle LMS to help them understand what is being taught online. Therefore, the students enrolled in online learning are not doing well (Male, Participant 11)

Regarding the issues of students’ technical know-how, a participant had the following to say:

The challenge is that many of the distance education students are not computer literate, so several of them are not able to submit assignment into the Sakai platform. There was also intermittent power fluctuation coupled with lack of a power generator for a backup purpose. (Male, Participant 7)

Issues about technology, including Internet access, technical support, ability to customise the platform, and computer literacy training are very critical for effective online education.

Reasons for non-use of sakai/moodle LMS

The factors that emerged for Non-Use of the Sakai/Moodle LMS were centred on two main themes: (1) Nature of Courses being offered and (2) Infrastructural and Technical Challenges.

Nature of course offerings

There are some courses that need special software or features on the LMS to make it possible for them to be taught online. These include French, Mathematics and certain courses for Special Education students. Regarding this theme, a participant remarked:

I teach Mathematics, and it is difficult to use the Moodle LMS because several symbols used in Mathematics are not captured on the Moodle platform. As a result, assignments, marking and grading are done manually (Male, Participant 15)

Another participant remarked:

I teach Special Education students. Those who are hearing-impaired lack a good interpreter when teaching online. As a result of this, I do not use Moodle to teach (Male, Participant, 16)

A similar response was given by another participant:

I teach French language. This cannot be done online. The French letters and punctuation marks are not embedded in the Sakai LMS. Besides, most of the students are not French natives and therefore, teaching them through a face-to-face approach is far better than teaching them online. (Female, Participant, 17)

The reason why Sakai and Moodle are not being used is because they do not have the symbols and tools needed for Special Education students, mathematics, and language instruction.

Infrastructural and technical deficiencies

The issues of power fluctuation and lack of backup, low bandwidth and inadequate technical support also affected the use of the LMS. The narrative below shows it:

Power fluctuation is a problem. In the middle of your presentation, power goes out. The generator needed is always broken down. I lost huge data on my “pen” drive due to power fluctuation. Downloading is also very slow. Technical support is also a problem. Some of the ICT officials need serious training. (Female, Participant, 18)

Two other participants stated:

There are problems with Internet connection and power fluctuation especially when one is away from campus. (Male Participant, 20) Although the University wants lecturers to use the Moodle, it has not provided computer laptops or desktops, so I do not use it. (Female, Participant 19)

User-Unfriendliness of LMS

Three participants lamented that their non-use of the LMS was due to its relative user-unfriendliness, as expressed below:

Loading courses on the Moodle platform is really a demanding task. Additionally, several students are not abreast of the use of the Moodle LMS, although I am aware that training and tutorials have been made available to them. (Male, Participant 15)

Difficulty in uploading course materials onto the LMS was demotivating. The unstable network system was worrying. The manual on how to use the Moodle LMS was of insufficient details. (Male, Participant 19)

The functionality of Moodle LMS was too elementary. All lecturers were asked to do was to post learning materials online, no adequate features allowing interactivity with peers and among peers. Constant freezing of the LMS due to overload of usage caused a lot of problems. Examination papers were cancelled and rescheduled. (Male, Participant 20)

Restrictiveness of LMS

Another participant commented on the limitations of the Sakai LMS contributing to his non-use of the system as follows:

I do not use Sakai because it is too narrow. It does not have features that could reach out to the global audience. I like to use new technologies such as Facebook, YouTube and Twitter which can reach out to the global audiences. (Male, Participant, 19)

Teaching a course does not call for “reaching global audiences”. It is not a fair criticism of Sakai. This participant is missing the point about online teaching. Online teaching is teaching a defined of registered students of a university in a virtual classroom, but not for teaching the whole world.

Enhancing use

The use of the system can be enhanced by improving communication, enhancing training and providing the enabling environment as seen from the following responses:

We are not aware that the LMS is available and being used. Heads of departments must communicate effectively. (Male participant 6)

Training is poorly organized. Both novices and those who understand the system are provided the same content of training; and going forward it must be properly done appreciating the different levels of people involved. (Female participant 17)

An enabling environment must be created where the university administrators make sure all the faculty members have laptops to use, there is technical assistance to fix their problems and again off-campus access to the university system is made accessible, and many others. (Male participant 7)

Customizing the LMS so that lecturers can play their course advisory role online will enhance the use. Effective communications using the announcement tool on the LMS and regular SMS messages on students’ phones can also enhance the use of the system. (Female participant 18)

Discussion

Primarily, the present study addresses two key issues: 1) factors influencing lecturers’ use of the LMS and 2) the reasons underpinning the non-use of the LMS by other lecturers. The study also investigated the challenges involved in using the system and how to enhance the use of the system. The purpose was to come up with relevant strategies to motivate the use of LMS so that its benefits can be realised to the maximum. Thematic analysis of the interview data showed the key factors addressing the adoption and use of Sakai/Moodle LMS, related barriers, the reasons for the non-use of the LMS as well as ways of enhancing the use. These are discussed below.

Regarding the influence of prior skills and knowledge in ICT in LMS in the present study, it is pertinent to mention that numerous studies attest to the fact that teachers’ Prior Skills and Knowledge in the use of a computer are key factors for effective use of ICT in teaching. Conversely, lack of Prior Skills and Knowledge in ICT can hinder the adoption and use of e-learning (Gautreaux, 2011; Kreijnsa et al., 2013) although that finding is inconsistent with Hettinger et al. (1996). Needless to say, lecturers who are novices in the use of the computer need more effort to adopt and use the Sakai/Moodle LMS for teaching. The situation is worsened if there is no institutional policy that makes the use of the LMS mandatory, or if there is no official counselling and training facility available to motivate the use of the LMS.

Furthermore, certain enablers such as availability of computers, fast Internet connectivity and availability of technical support, to mention just a few, were found in this study as influencing the adoption and use of the Sakai/Moodle LMS for teaching. These Enabling Conditions are however meant to be provided by the University. There is abundance of literature indicating that Enabling Conditions such as training and availability of technical staff support, pedagogical support, provision of IT equipment, repairs of faculty computers and a robust Internet infrastructure provide teachers/lecturers the confidence needed to use technology for teaching (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012; Teo 2010). This implies that poor repairs of equipment, shortages of computer hardware and software, power outages, poor downloading as well as a cumbersome institutional culture inhibit the adoption and use of educational technology (Boateng, 2015; Sarfo and Yidana, 2016).

Training in the use of ICT for teaching equips both new and old faculty members with the skill to use it for teaching (Franklin, 2007; Wozney et al., 2006). Teachers/lecturers need ICT experts to guide them to incorporate ICT into teaching (Plair, 2008). For example, providing faculty members/students with tutorials to enable them navigate through the online applications and tools provides them the skill to use it. Lack of such technical support stifles the use and successful implementation of e-learning systems (Marfo and Okine, 2010). Tagoe (2012) found that only a scanty number of lecturers incorporated ICT into teaching and learning activities in Ghana. This observation corroborates other studies (Ong, Lai and Wang, 2004). Other studies have found that institutional factors influence ICT use supports existing literature (Chen, 2008; Lim and Chai, 2008). However, social and institutional contexts are often unsupportive of lecturers' efforts to integrate educational technology into their work, and lecturers have often been provided with inadequate training and other needed support for this task.

Self-Efficacy was found in this study to influence lecturers’ use of Sakai/Moodle for teaching and is consistent with prior studies (Awidi, 2008; Buabeng-Andoh, 2012; Kreijnsa et al., 2013; Marcelo, Yot and Mayor, 2015).

Asamoah (2016) remarked that the utility/usefulness of Sakai/Moodle includes convenience, flexibility, comfort, research uses, enhancement of students’ intelligence, facilitation of creative and critical thinking. He maintained that each of them influences Actual Use of the LMS, as well as in tandem with previous studies (D’Ambra and Rice, 2001; Mukoko, 2012). The use of LMS also enhances enrolment, reduces cost and increases quality of education. Since Utility/Usefulness has a direct influence on the Actual Use of the system, it means that for more lecturers to adopt and use the LMS, adequate education on the usefulness of the system and training to equip the lecturers with the requisite skills to use the system must be taken seriously by the University. Additionally, the technical support and the infrastructural network issues must be free of problems.

Mukoko (2012) found that Ease of Use of a technology was an important factor in the adoption and use of the computer and the Internet (In the current study, participants found the LMS to be easy to use because they needed little effort. However, some lecturers were still struggling to use the LMS due to technological and technical challenges. These challenges include irregular power supply, slow Internet connectivity, and unavailability of technical staff, as shown by other studies (Asamoah and Mackin, 2016; Boateng, 2015; Fathema et al., 2015; Sarfo and Yidana, 2016). The acquisition of an LMS is relevant only if the challenges associated with its deployment are addressed and it is put to meaningful use (Fathema et al., 2015). Reyes (2015) notes that lecturers’ skills and acquired knowledge clash with new educational technologies. Also, teaching, and administrative duties are incompatible with regular pressure to go for training seminars and workshops to acquire IT knowledge and skills. Anderson (2010) observes that making a transition from a traditional face-to-face teaching and learning to a technology-rich learning environment is a challenge for both teachers and students because it generally requires a change in their duties and responsibilities in teaching and learning. Nevertheless, it behooves university authorities to address these challenges in order to ensure that the LMS is used effectively.

In suggesting how to upgrade the LMS, respondents said the system design should include online course advisory and interactivity functions, and these suggestions have been found in the extant literature (Twiggs, 2010). The inclusion of the course advisory tool on the Learning Management System (LMS) is meant for the lecturer who is a course advisor, to be able to meet with several students online to address their academic issues. This will eliminate the difficulty of meeting students one-on-one in the small office of the lecturer. The finding that universities must go hybrid is very laudable because it makes room for courses that cannot be taught online to continue to be taught in the physical classroom while still profiting from the numerous benefits of the online teaching of other courses.

With regard to Non-users of the system, it was found in the interview data that the lecturers did not harbour an outright resistance to the use the Sakai LMS. Rather, they seemed to be faced with challenges that they were unable to overcome. For example, for lecturers who taught mathematics or French language, Sakai/Moodle did not offer certain features (e.g. mathematical symbols or special characters) which are necessary for teaching such courses. Besides, a participants saw the LMS as too narrow, and preferred social media technology such as Facebook, YouTube and WhatsApp. Non-users of the LMS were aware that the LMS had been acquired for lecturers’ use and students’ learning, but they were not interested in using it. Other lecturers in the study also did not know that the LMS had been acquired by their university for their use. There appeared to be inadequate sensitization, communication with and motivation of lecturers to use the system.

A number of the themes overlap. They reflect the same concerns that need to be managed by university administrators. Appropriate policies and regulations are needed to induce a wider adoption and use of the Open Source LMS that is compatible with the universities’ culture, values and vision. First and foremost, the Users of the LMS are those who have accepted and incorporated the LMS into their teaching; and Non-users are those who have not integrated the LMS into their teaching. From the foregoing discussions, it can be inferred that there are some relationships between the themes in respect of the Users and the Non-users. They are both direct, and inverse relationships. For instance, while the Users of the LMS found it easy to use, the Non-users found it as difficult to use, and this hampered their use of the system. Second, while the Users found the system to have Utility (Usefulness). A Non-user as mentioned earlier perceived the system as Narrow and Restrictive in use thus preferred to deploy the social media platform tools such as YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp to support their teaching or to deploy their self-designed learning platform instead of the conventional LMS. However, what the Non-user is not aware of is the fact that the LMS could be modified, extended, or customized to suit local needs and expectations. This means the social media platform could be used alongside the LMS during the teaching and learning transaction without creating any problem.

Besides, the LMS has a lot of features embedded in it that are designed for organizing teaching and learning. Some of the Non-users of the LMS are not aware of such features. And more importantly, while the Users revealed that using the system was an innovation with several benefits, the Non-users still preferred the old system (the face-to-face mode) because they found it easy to use. While the Users employed the system for delivering lessons and for other activities, Non-users did not use it at all, although some of them were aware that the system was available and could be used for delivering lessons and for other activities. While the Users of the system maintained that there were challenges including lack of appropriate software and Internet connectivity issues, the Non-users also considered these challenges as some of the reasons for not using the LMS, and they recommended that such problems be addressed by the university administrators. What that means is that if the challenges are not addressed, Users of the system today will be discouraged and eventually abandon it, and the Non-users will remain as they are (as non-users of the LMS). It is worth mentioning that the qualitative data are hinged on two key factors, namely i) determinants of usage and ii) improving use of LMS (Sakai/Moodle). The causal factors of Use and Non-use of the Open Source LMS (as discussed already) are herein referred to as determinants.

Users of the system suggest enhancement of use, and Non-users recommend factors likely to facilitate usage; together these are referred to as improvement of the system. Consequently, LMS adoption and use for teaching and learning are influenced by several factors; and improvement of the system will require innovative interventions by university authorities in order to ensure success in the online education in Ghana.

Conclusion

The study sought to explore the factors influencing the adoption and use of educational technology learning management systems (LMS) for teaching and learning in higher education in a developing country (Ghana) where the conventional way of teaching and learning has dominated the scene for a very long time and seems to be the norm. It was concluded that factors enhancing LMS adoption must be given prominence so as to promote effective use of the system. Factors hampering the adoption and use of the system must be removed or regulated in order to enhance the use of the system. The study creates awareness and reminds faculty members of the penetration of educational technologies in higher education and the need to embrace the technology in order to keep abreast of ongoing educational trends and be able to fit within their educational institutions.

Recommendations

1. Awareness should be created among university authorities to provide the enabling conditions for a smooth adoption and use of the LMS among lecturers in Ghana. For example, university administrators should ensure uninterrupted power supply, fast Internet connection, availability of technical assistance, easy access to computers and regular training for both lecturers and students.

2. Regarding the LMS, training and motivation must focus largely on the Non-users in order to enhance the use of the system and increase the each university’s blended online educational practice and its competitiveness.

3. Training given to faculty on LMS must also take in account the individual’s values, beliefs, past experiences, attitude, and prior knowledge in educational technology since they affect Actual Use of the LMS. This can be known by asking lecturers to complete ac questionnaire in that direction. The analysis of the data will reveal the factors mentioned here and inform the training approach.

4. The influx of educational technology is in its infancy in Africa, and as such its adoption and use will be slow and will also need motivation. The management of each university must factor this into its staff training policy and motivational packages. Early adopters should be encouraged by university administrators to create the time to help those who are “laggards” to get on board.

5. The interface, features and tools, the functioning of the system, the speed of navigation and the interactive ability of the LMS should be regularly monitored, evaluated and upgraded according to the needs and expectations of faculty members and students.

6. A mandatory policy for technology adoption and use must be adopted and be tied to promotion, renewal of contracts, and to high-level administrative assignments and allowances.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Moses Kumi Asamoah

Author Biographies

Moses Kumi Asamoah is researcher and Senior Lecturer with the department of University of Ghana Learning Centres, University of Ghana, Legon. He holds PhD in Adult Education and Human Resources Studies; BSc in Administration, and Master of Philosophy (Pt.1) in Adult Education, all from University of Ghana, Legon. Additionally, he holds Master of Philosophy in Religious Studies from the University of Cape Coast; Professional Post-Graduate Diploma in Management (IPMA_), UK., Post-Graduate Diploma in Administration and Management Consultancy (Mgt)- CIAMC, Ghana. He is an Accredited Public Relations Practitioner, (IPR) IPR, Ghana; Holder of Ghana Securities Industry Certificate, and Licensed International Financial Analyst (LIFA Pt. III). Moses worked in the industry as an Accountant and Financial Analyst for 12 years before considering teaching in the University. He has been lecturing at the University level for 16 years now; teaching undergraduates, Masters and PhD students as well as supervising students’ Long Essays and Thesis. His research interest is broad including, Access, Cost and Quality of Higher Education, ICT-driven Teaching and Learning; Learner Support Services, Social Media; Adult Education; Educational Policy Administration and management, Leadership Education.

Yaw Oheneba-Sakyi is with the Department of Adult Education and Human Resource Studies in the University of Ghana. He was the founding dean of School of Continuing and Distance Education of the University of Ghana.

References

Abdallah

El Arif

Elgazzar

(2009) The effect e-learning approach on students’ achievement in Biomedical instrumentation course at Palestine Polytechnique University. Communication of IBIMA 9(17): 141–150. ISSN:1943-7765.

Adedoja

Abimbade (2016) Influence of mobile learning training on pre-service social studies teachers’ technology and mobile phone self-efficacies. Journal of Education and Practice 7(2): 74–79.

Alghamdi

Bayaga

(2016) Use and attitude towards Learning Management System(LMS) in Soudi Arabian universities. Eurasi Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education 12(9): 2309–2330. Eurasia.2016.1281a.

Anderson

(2010) ICT Transforming Education: A Regional Guide. Bangkok: UNESCO.

Asamoah

Mackin

(2016) PhD year 1 students’ experience with the educational technology and innovation course. Africa Education Review 13(2): 31–47.

Awidi

(2008) Developing an E-learning strategy for public universities in Ghana. Educause Quarterly 31(2). Retrieved from http://www,edcause.edu/EDUCAUSE+EDUCAUSE_Quarterly_Magazine_Volum/Developing_eLearning_Strategyf/162878

Boateng

(2015) Adults pursuing e-learning in Ghana-opportunities, challenges and expectations. Journal of Education and E-Learning Research 2(4): 64–71.

Braun

Clarke

(2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology 3(2): 77–101. DOI: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Buabeng-Andoh

(2012) Factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching: A review of the literature. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT) 8(1): 136–155.

10.

Chai

Fan

(2016) Mobile inverted constructivism: education of interaction technology in social media. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education 12(5): 1425–1442doi. DOI: 10.12973/eurasia.2016.1522a

11.

Chen

(2008) Why do teachers not practice what they believe regarding technology integration? The Journal of Educational Research 102(1): 65–75.

12.

Chris

(2016) Giving up technology and social media: why university lecturers stop using technology in teaching. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 23(3): 1–19. DOI: 10.1080/1475939X.2016.1217269

13.

Christensen

Knezek

(2008) Self-report measures and findings for information technology attitudes and competencies. In: Voogt

Knezek

(eds), International Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 397–417.

14.

Coates

James

Baldwin

(2005) Learning Management System on university teaching and learning. Tertiary Education and Management 11: 19–36.

15.

Dahlstrom

Brooks

Bichsel

(2014) The Current Ecosystem of Learning Management Systems in Education: Student, Faculty, and IT Perspectives. Louisville, CO: ECAR. Research report http://www.educause.edu/ecar

16.

D’Ambra

Rice

(2001) Emerging factors in user evaluation of the world wide web. Information and Management 38(6): 373–384.

17.

Davis

Bagozzi

Warshaw

(1989) User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science 35: 475–487.

18.

DiCicco-Bloom

Crabtree

(2006) The qualitative research interview. Medical Education 40: 314–321. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.x

19.

Fathema N Shannon

Ross

(2015) Expanding The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to Examine Faculty Use of Learning Management Systems (LMSs) In Higher Education Institutions. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 11(2).

20.

Franklin

(2007) Factors that influence elementary teachers use of computers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 15(2): 267–293.

21.

Gautreau

(2011) Motivational factors affecting the integration of a learning management system by faculty. The Journal of Educators Online 8(1): 1–25.

22.

Grgurović

(2014) An application of the Diffusion of Innovations theory to the investigation of blended language learning. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8(2): 155–170. DOI: 10.1080/17501229.2013.789031

23.

Henriksen

Mishra

Greenhow

, et al. (2014) Michigan State University. A Tale of Two Courses: Innovation in the Hybrid/Program at Michigan State University TechTrends 58(4): 45–53.

24.

Hettinger

Johanson

Stoneburner

(1996) Educational programmes of Children with disabilities: A case study report on the state of the practice. Journal of special education and technology 8: 16–35.

25.

Jaschik

Lederman

(2014) The 2014 inside Higher Ed Survey of Faculty Attitudes on Technology: A Study by Gallup and inside Higher. Washington, DC. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/survey/online-ed-skepticism-and-self-sufficiency-survey-faculty-views-technology

26.

Kearsley

(2002) Is online learning for everybody? Educational Technology 42(1): 41–44.

27.

Kwofie

Henten

(2011) The Advantages and Challenges of E-Learning Implementation: The Story of a Developing Nation. Istabul,Turkey: Bahcesehir University. Paper presented at World Conference on Education sciences.

28.

Kreijnsa

Ackerc

Vermeulend

, et al. (2013) What stimulates teachers to integrate ICT in their pedagogical practices? The use of digital learning materials in education. Computers in Human Behavior 29(1): 217–225. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.08.008

29.

Lee

Hsieh

Hsu

(2011) Adding Innovation Diffusion Theory to the Technology Acceptance Model: Supporting Employees' Intentions to use E-Learning Systems. Educational Technology and Society 14(4): 12–137.

30.

Lim

Chai

(2008) Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their planning and conduct of computer-mediated classroom lessons. British Journal of Educational Technology 39(5): 807–828.

31.

Lofstrom

Nevgi

(2008) University teaching staffs' pedagogical awareness displayed through ICT-facilitated teaching. Interactive Learning Environments 16(2): p101–p116.

32.

Majhi

Mahrana

(2010) Innovative web 2.0 technologies for integrating e-learning process.

33.

Makura

(2014) Students’ Perceptions of the Use of ICT in a Higher Education Teaching and Learning Context: The Case of a South African University. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 5(11): 43. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n11p43

34.

MacCallum

Cumming-Potvin

Durrant

, et al. (2008) Teachers’ journeys towards critical use of ICT. Learning, Media and Technology 33(4): 313–327.

35.

Marcelo

Yot

Mayor

(2015) University teaching with digital technologies. Comunicar 23(45): 117–124.

36.

Marfo

Okine

(2010) Implementation of E-Learning in Ghanaian Tertiary Institutions. A Case Study of KNUST.

37.

Mullamaa

(2010) ICT in language learning-benefits and methodological implications. International Education Studies 3(1): 38–44.

38.

Mukoko

(2012) Determinants of Computer and Internet Adoption and use in Cameroon. African Review of Economics and Finance 3(2): 96–128.

39.

Ngololo

Howie

Plomp

(2012) An evaluation of the implementation of the National ICT Policy for Education in Namibian rural science classrooms. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 16(1): 4–17.

40.

Ong

Lai

Wang

(2004) Factors affecting engineers’ acceptance of asyncgronous e-learning system in high-tech companies. Information & Management 41: 795–804.

41.

Pelgrum

(2001) Obstacles to the integration of ICT in education: Results from a worldwide educational assessment. Computers & Education 37: 163–178. [CrossRef], [Web of Science.

42.

Picciano

(2009) Blending with Purpose: The Multimodal Model. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 13(1): 7–18. http://sloanconsortium.org/jaln/v13n1/blending-purpose-multimodal-model

43.

Plair

(2008) Revamping professional development for technology integration and fluency. The Clearing House 82(2): 70–74.

44.

Pretorius

Steyn

Johnson

(2012) Pair teaching of ICT in higher education: a multi-perspective reflectionPowers, S. and Mitchell, J. . Student perceptions and performance in a virtual classroom environment. Chicago: pp. 1–12. Paper presented at the annual meeting.

45.

Reyes

(2015) How do school leaders navigate ICT educational reform? Policy learning narratives from a Singapore context. International Journal of Leadership in Education. Theory and Practice 18(3): 365–385. DOI: 10.1080/13603124.2014.982200

46.

Rogers

(2003) Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press.

47.

Sandelowski

(1995) Sample size in qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health 18: 179–183. [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®].

48.

Sarfo

Yidana

(2016) University lecturers’ experience in the design and use of moodle and blended learning environment. The Online Journal of Horizons in Education 6(2): 143.

49.

Selim

(2007) Critical Success Factors for e-Learning Acceptance: Confirmatory Factor Models. Computer and Education 49(2): 396–413. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2005.09.004

50.

Smith

Osborn

(2003) Interpretive phenomenological analysis. In: Smith

(ed), Qualitative psychlogy: A practical guide to research methods. London: Sage, pp. 51–80.

51.

Tagoe

(2012) Students’ perceptions on incorporating e-learning into teaching and learning at the University of Ghana. Journal of Education and Development using information communication technology 8(1): 91–103.

52.

Tagoe

(2013) Incorporating e-learning into teaching and learning at the University of Ghana: Perception of Faculty. Ghana Social Science Journal 10(1and 2): 53–78.

53.

Teo

(2012) Examining the intention to use technology among pre-service teachers: an integration of the Technology Acceptance Model and Theory of Planned Behavior. Interactive Learning Environments 20(1): 3–18. DOI: 10.1080/10494821003714632

54.

Teo

(2010) Examining the influence of subjective norm and facilitating conditions on the intention to use technology among pre-service teachers: A structural equation modeling of an extended Technology Acceptance Model. Asia Pacific Education Review 11(2): 253–262.

55.

Tok

Sora

(2013) Perspective of emerging integrating technology (ICT) in learning and teaching. International Journal of Information and Education Technology 3(2): 282–285.

56.

Tondeur

Valcke

van Braak

(2008) A multidimensional approach to determinants of computer use in primary education: Teacher and school characteristics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 24: 494–506.

57.

Twigg

(2010). Course Re-Design Initiatives: National Centre for Academic transformation. http://www.thencat.org

58.

University of Ghana (2009) ICT Policy.

59.

Wozney

Venkatesh

Abrami

(2006) Implementing computer technologies: teachers’ perceptions and practices. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 14(1): 173–207.