Never Mess With the “Memers”: How Meme Creators Are Redefining Contemporary Politics

Memes as Tools for Marketing, Public Relations, and Political Influence

The findings reveal that meme creators, like any other form of content creators across the media landscape, strategically design and disseminate their content to reach and resonate with specific audiences across various platforms (Boulianne et al., 2020; Jenkins & Ito, 2015). The participants are not only aware of their ability to shape narratives and construct frames, but they perceive memes as potent communication tools that can compress complex ideas and narratives into emotionally resonant and inherently shareable content (Beskow et al., 2020; Guadagno et al., 2013):

I see them [memes] as a form of online marketing message, kind of edgy and guerrilla-style. I can’t define them exactly. It’s a highly compressed and easily understandable message. It’s like a slogan or an image that people can associate easily. Currently, memes seem to bring people together better than political platforms. (PARTICIPANT2)

This perception of memes’ potential to shape public discourse and act as a marketing tool is shared by another creator: “They can be used as a kind of PR, especially now, on social media pages.” (PARTICIPANT4). Thus, meme creators use memes to frame political actors and narratives to advance their interests or agendas, something deeply intertwined with the concepts of media framing and agenda-setting (Kulkarni, 2017; McCombs & Shaw, 1972). Hence, meme creators believe that they can persuade individuals to shift their attention to the frames they put forward, leading to an increased chance of changing opinions and perceptions. They contribute to the creation of a new social reality, amplifying or solidifying existing narratives and opinions about political actors:

When a meme goes viral, there’s even the part of brand recognition, you know, when you keep seeing the same characters and you start to recognise them. You somewhat create a different perception about them, because you’re not just drowned in news, and negative things about X, Y, and Z. Maybe you see a funny meme, maybe you relate to a character. So, it’s a method of both harming someone’s image but also doing good. (PARTICIPANT6)

Hence, meme creators consider themselves decentralized, bottom-up forces that introduce a challenge toward traditional established political institutions and media entities through a new form of communication model: memes. This is achieved through humor and satire as a means of revealing and exploring lesser-known aspects, leading to the potential of memes to shape perceptions, even if not consciously: “So, when you’re merely poking fun at a situation, not so much, but when you’re shedding light on something new or less known, it can be impactful” (PARTICIPANT1). Furthermore, the deliberate curation and framing of content reveals a high level of awareness of their influence, self-positioning themselves as an influential force in the political arena. This aligns with the notion of “meme-ing reality” (Shifman, 2013), where memes respond to and shape political narratives. Thus, meme creators intentionally create memes to generate reactions and discussions, actively participating in framing political narratives and setting the agenda and discourse: “We try through most of the posts to explain or influence the discourse towards a certain position” (PARTICIPANT6).

Wiggins (2019) emphasizes the crucial role that media narratives play in the creation, dissemination, and impact of memes, considering that memes are deeply intertwined with the media narratives they emerge from, often serving as reflections, critiques, or reinforcements of these narratives. Hence, memes can amplify certain perspectives, challenge dominant ideologies, or reinforce existing beliefs, making them a significant force in contemporary digital communication through how they are used by online communities to create new meanings. The iterative process of meme creation, where content is continually remixed and redistributed, allows for the ongoing reinterpretation of media narratives, making memes a dynamic tool for engaging with and influencing public discourse. The findings suggest that meme creators acknowledge their ability to sway perceptions toward or against certain political entities, using memes as discursive tools that contribute to the construction of political reality and narratives, acting as a means of political criticism, satire, and counter-narratives (Bebić & Volarevic, 2018; Mortensen & Neumayer, 2021). However, they suggested that their coordinated efforts have the potential to change users’ minds and influence their political views by leveraging the repetitive nature of memes and the cognitive biases they entail, reinforcing narratives and playing a crucial role in shaping long-term public perceptions toward political actors:

Normally, these images would come and go, but due to meme creators, I believe the world sees how ridiculous they are, which can gradually alter their opinions. (PARTICIPANT1)

If they all get together, those who make jokes like that, and start making fun of you, who knows, people might change their minds and start doing things like that, they might even change people’s opinions. (PARTICIPANT5)

It suggests that collective reinforcement creates a sense of consensus, where memes, as cultural artifacts, embed shared meanings and values, leading individuals to reassess their own opinions or beliefs. The creation and dissemination of memes in the digital age carry significant social and political implications as they often reflect and perpetuate existing societal norms and hegemonies, especially as meme culture is deeply rooted in the socio-demographic background of its creators, who are typically young, privileged, and often male (Shifman, 2013; Vickery, 2014). Several researchers have analyzed the unregulated power of memes as tools of political persuasion, raising concerns about the potential for memes to perpetuate harmful ideologies or incite violence as they can polarize and mobilize online communities (Al-Rawi, 2021; Johann, 2022; Paz et al., 2021). Memes are often emotionally charged as they often fuse humor with politically oriented anger, providing an emotional release for audiences while simultaneously deepening political cynicism (Candor, 2020; Griffin, 2021; Lynch, 2022), which can lead to the spread of political misinformation and the trivialization of complex social issues, further deepening their role in digital discourse (Dupuis & Williams, 2019; Journell & Clark, 2019; Lynch, 2022).

Hence, the frequent expression of anger and hostility in memes highlights their potential to undermine public trust in government, perpetuate harmful ideologies, or incite violence (DeCook, 2018; Wagener, 2023). The anonymity and virality associated with meme culture often shield creators from accountability, allowing toxic behaviors to flourish unchecked and appropriate identities without permission, fuelling the creation of demeaning memes (Highfield, 2017; Phillips, 2015; Vickery, 2014). This conformity to group norms and the persuasive power of collective meme creation is further exemplified:

You can actually influence someone’s vote, but you don’t see a meme and say, “Oh, this is right, look at what kind of person this [politician] is.” No. It has to be a collective thing. There have to be more people, or a single person can’t post 20 memes on the same subject, because that would be a form of harassment. No, it has to be collective, especially if you follow memes, I think you have to see the same opinion from more people to change it [your opinion] in some way. (PARTICIPANT5)

Hence, the collective nature of meme-based political influence suggests a highly sustained and coordinated effort, with multiple memes expressing a similar opinion needed to influence public opinion and potentially impact voting behavior. The emphasis on interactivity and relatability aligns with the concept of participatory culture and audience engagement (Jenkins, 2006), where audiences actively co-create and circulate content:

Memes leave some room for interaction, in the sense that they make you comment, maybe they make you tag someone, maybe they make you share, and so on. They should be as relatable as possible, that’s the main point for them to work. (PARTICIPANT6)

The focus on relatability underscores the importance of cultural resonance in meme creation, as memes often draw upon shared experiences and cultural references to resonate with their intended audience.

Memes as Cultural and Generational Communication Tools

It could be argued that the adaptability and emphasis on the cultural relevance of memes have placed them within a historical context, evolving from traditional forms of satire and commentary and creating a language that bridges generational divides and speaks to contemporary audiences. This is reflected in the meme creators’ position in continuing the long-standing practices of using humor to critique and shape political narratives:

[. . .] in Romania, like in France, we have a history in this part of political humour. Until the ‘90s, alongside normal news and newspapers, Romanians used to buy Academia Cațavencu, which did something similar with various pictures, either manipulated or unmanipulated, with different captions. It’s what we are doing now with memes. (PARTICIPANT2)

This quote draws a historical parallel between the use of memes in contemporary political discourse and the political cartoons that were used to critique and satirize political figures and events, highlighting the evolution of political communication practices and their enduring cultural significance. The Romanian satirical magazine Academia Cațavencu is a prime example of political caricature culture, acting as a satirical commentary on contemporary and historical events and issues, developing their own stereotypes and nicknames of politicians. This clear link between cartoons and memes and the continuation of history are important elements that drive the meme creator further. The findings indicate that meme creators demonstrate an acute understanding of the viral potential of political memes, leveraging them to resonate with audiences, particularly younger demographics:

I believe they [memes] will start to have an increasingly bigger impact. They will be used more and more as a type of content on social media. Especially considering our generation, who grew up more with memes and Internet culture, and use these memes almost daily in various contexts. It’s like speaking the language of the future young electorate. (PARTICIPANT3)

Memes, as products of digital culture, play an increasingly significant role in shaping political discourse, particularly among younger generations who are more engaged in the unique internet cultural norms and preferences shaped by their experiences with technology and media. This is further emphasized by the differences between parties and the demographics they serve, highlighting the connection between meme culture and youth engagement with political parties, suggesting that some parties are more successful in leveraging memes due to their appeal to younger, more knowledgeable demographics:

USR ¹ is the best at it, and I fully understand why. In general, I haven’t seen much of it, but again there is a connection with the age groups that are attracted to and want to be involved with political parties, and I think it also has to do with knowledge in some way. If PSD ² and the PSD Youth page were to try making memes, I don’t think they would have as much success due to the knowledge of their supporters and their ages. (PARTICIPANT4).

However, meme creators understand that the effectiveness of political memes may be limited among older age groups with different media-consumption patterns and political attitudes:

When we communicate through memes, we mainly communicate to the youth, maybe towards millennials and such, but already after a certain age target, it doesn’t work as well. We get into other propaganda stuff, like those dubious pictures we see in comments. So, I would say that, although it has a super, super big impact on this youth target, I don’t know about the rest. (PARTICIPANT6)

This underscores the importance of understanding audience segmentation and tailoring communication strategies accordingly.

Memes as Interactive and Relatable Content for Audience Engagement

Memes are not just content to be consumed passively; they invite commentary, sharing, and communal interaction. This aspect of memes is crucial for their ability to influence opinions and create a sense of collective identity or movement. By curating content featuring prominent political figures or themes, meme creators enhance their ability to capture audience attention and facilitate rapid dissemination across online networks:

[memes show] what’s happening in society and . . . in which direction public perception is heading. For us, it was like a kind of survey. We looked at which memes received the most likes and concluded that a certain party is terrible. (PARTICIPANT2)

Meme creators can gain insights into the evolving attitudes and opinions of the public by tracking the prevalence and responses of targeting specific political figures or events, using memes as a form of “sociological survey.” This is exemplified by the same meme creator who expressed how meme creators track the popularity of their memes targeting specific politicians or parties, using it as a gauge for public perception and sentiment:

Facebook provides some sociological studies and very clear samples. You just look at the comments, you look at the reach, you look at which posts people hate, which ones they appreciate, and you also look at the people who comment. (PARTICIPANT2).

Hence, the popularity and engagement of their content can be used as a barometer to understand the shifting political landscape and public perceptions. Meme trends reflect broader societal discourses and power dynamics, serving as indicators of prevailing attitudes and ideologies. In turn, meme creators use social media metrics to determine which political actors are put into the spotlight and what is the consensus on them. Linking back to the media framing theories, meme creators act as agenda-setting agents by highlighting certain issues or individuals, influencing which topics receive attention in the public sphere:

I think they often help maintain a status quo. For example, memes about Viorica Dăncilă, we all knew she wasn’t the best prime minister, and I think in the end, memes about her helped maintain this status quo and amplify it. They amplified the general opinion of people about this character. (PARTICIPANT3)

In the case of the former prime minister, Viorica Dăncilă, meme creators have solidified a damaging image, which has perpetuated a negative general image of her. They have constantly attacked and created memes around her, perpetuating the stereotype that she is not intelligent. This reveals their potential to influence the salience and interpretation of political events (Dean, 2019; Ross & Rivers, 2017b). Nevertheless, meme culture is highly connected to the persistent patriarchal structures that pervade digital spaces, where regardless of the progress women have made in gaining access to leadership roles, they continue to be viewed as “space invaders” in political institutions, leading to them being depicted as lacking the capacity for powerful positions (Nee & De Maio, 2019; Runderkamp et al., 2022), figurative invisibility, and under-recognized political status (Puwar, 2004). Several researchers have shown how memes frequently reinforce these gender norms through online gender trolling that reinforces male dominance and isolates women (Mantilla, 2013), trivializing the feminist movement and marginalizing non-conforming identities (Banet-Weiser, 2018). The predominance of male creators in meme culture exacerbates these issues, as women’s perspectives are often misrepresented (Seargeant & Tagg, 2014), perpetuating stereotypes of women as the “weaker sex” (Devitt, 2002; Freedman et al., 2007). For instance, during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, female politicians like Hillary Clinton and Nancy Pelosi were depicted negatively, perpetuating gender stereotypes through memes (Hunting, 2020; Moody-Ramirez & Church, 2019).

Meme creators focus on the importance of cultural resonance in meme creation, as memes often draw upon shared experiences and cultural references to resonate with their intended audience. They try to appeal to diverse audiences and cultivate shared cultural narratives yet acknowledge the challenges of reaching older demographics who are less immersed in meme culture and internet vernacular. It reflects the strategic use of memes for marketing and influence, their cultural significance across generations, and their interactive nature as a tool for engagement.

The Interplay Between Memes and News Media

Boczkowski and Mitchelstein (2013) argued that the speed and ephemeral nature of online media can lead to a symbiotic relationship between news consumption and the production of user-generated content, such as memes: “So, the month of May was dry in terms of material because nothing was happening, there was no news, nothing. When there’s news, then there’s material. Or at least, it’s material that goes well.” (PARTICIPANT1).

Hence, this acknowledgment of meme creators to adapt their meme content based on the availability of news or current events, either by directly responding to newsworthy material or by exploring more niche or obscure topics, aligns with the concept of “meme diffusion” (Nahon & Hemsley, 2013; Shifman, 2013). It reflects the meme creators’ perception of their role in provoking high emotional reactions through political memes and the need to remain relevant and responsive to emerging issues: “without daily news, there wouldn’t be as many memes. There wouldn’t be as many topics” (PARTICIPANT5). The symbiotic relationship between memes and news has been highlighted in all interviews, and meme creators recognize the influence of traditional media on the themes and subjects explored through memes. Nevertheless, it is important to note the fact that there is not only high interest in finding, commenting, and disseminating memes stemming from news, but there is a strategic community-led activity behind it:

We also have a common chat where, when a potential meme-worthy news comes up, we share it among ourselves to get different perspectives and meme ideas from there. And lately, we even added someone who actually works in the press as a journalist. So, we’ll have direct access to the hottest news. (PARTICIPANT3)

Incorporating a journalist into their network further amplifies the recognition of the importance of direct access to news sources in shaping meme content and staying ahead of emerging issues. It suggests an even more direct link between memes and traditional news reporting, with meme creators potentially gaining early access to newsworthy information. This dynamic reflects the growing influence of social media and user-generated content in shaping public discourse and perceptions around current events.

I believe that memes actually precede the news. [. . .] memes probably beat the poor reporter who goes to do a report for a news segment, they need more time until they put it out, until they broadcast it. We immediately take a picture that we find interesting, we post it, we write a caption, a story there, and that’s it. Even if we don’t have time to open Canva or any other similar app to make edits. We just write the words there, take a picture of the TV, and that’s it, or well, we take a picture from somewhere, sometimes we even get pictures from inside sources and post them. (PARTICIPANT2)

This quote presents a contrasting perspective, suggesting that memes can precede and potentially influence traditional news reporting due to their ability to quickly capture and share images or content from various sources, including insider sources. Thus, it can allow the growth of an organic and grassroots form of information dissemination that can sometimes lead to or influence the news agenda. Memes are both reactive to and anticipatory of news events, and this reliance on news for meme content reflects how the flow of information fuels online discourse, with memes acting as a rapid-response tool to emerging stories.

Ethical Concerns: Misinformation and the Risks of Memes

However, meme creators expressed concerns about the potential for their content to be misinterpreted, taken out of context, or misused as inspiration for spreading misinformation, false narratives, and propaganda across online networks: “I’m sure many people take some memes seriously, and there are also many who simply get inspired. [individuals] get inspired by absolutely anything to create fake news, so why not from memes?” (PARTICIPANT5). This self-reflective perspective highlights meme creators’ awareness of the potential risks and unintended consequences associated with the spread of misinformation and maintaining the integrity of digital public spheres. For example, one meme creator recounted an instance where a seemingly innocent and satirical event they created transformed into a legitimate news story covered by mainstream media outlets. The creator shared the fake event among different meme page communities in which they stated that they would support an extremely controversial politician, Alexandru Cumpănașu, who was recently investigated by authorities (specifically, by the National Anticorruption Directorate). Popular mainstream newspapers and popular journalists shared the event and created news segments around it. This illustrates the striking balance between misinformation and satire and the potential impact of memes on mainstream media and public discourse, highlighting the need for responsibility and caution in creating memes that could potentially spread misinformation. It highlights the dual-edged nature of memes: while they can entertain and inform, they can also mislead and create false narratives.

Audience Reactions and Content Creator Responsibility

Furthermore, meme creators acknowledge the power of memes to elicit polarized responses, provoke strong emotions, and intentionally or unintentionally shape perceptions through strategic framing techniques: “I can be quite spiteful, and the fact that a certain thing generates reactions. [. . .] and the fact that people were upset indicates that we are heading in the right direction” (PARTICIPANT2). Meme creators display an understanding of the potential influence their platform can have in shaping narratives and fostering critical discourse among their audience, becoming hyper-aware of the responses they might receive: “It’s complicated. It’s like being in a bar, you know? If you start bashing PSD too much, USR and PNL ³ supporters come. If you start bashing PNL, the PNL supporters start running away” (PARTICIPANT2). This metaphor encapsulates the delicate balance in maintaining a safe environment when dealing with divergent political allegiances.

This dynamic resonates with the concept of “filter bubbles” (Pariser, 2011), audiences selectively engaging with content aligning with their pre-existing beliefs, underscoring the challenges meme creators face in reaching and resonating with diverse audiences. It reflects the meme creators’ adeptness in navigating the treacherous terrain of online political discourse, where content can swiftly devolve into accusations of propaganda and disinformation. The quotes reflect a complex dynamic where the goal of generating reactions sometimes conflicts with ethical boundaries.

The willingness to self-correct and remove problematic content demonstrates recognition of the potential impact of memes and the need for responsible content creation. Another creator took a similar approach when it came to moderation: “[. . .] you have 50,000 likes on a page, you don’t care if you lose 10–12 in a day. If they are the ones who swear, it’s better not to have them” (PARTICIPANT2). By curating content featuring prominent political figures or themes, meme creators enhance their ability to capture audience attention and facilitate rapid dissemination across online networks. In contrast to the previous quote, the same meme creator acknowledges a more permissive approach to approving and posting meme content, regardless of the targets or potential consequences:

But for the most part, we approve almost everything, regardless of who they target or the consequences. Sometimes we post a meme about Cioloș, and the “userists” get upset, or we post something about PNL, and the same goes for PSD. (PARTICIPANT2)

This statement suggests a willingness to provoke reactions from various political factions or groups by creating memes that critique or satirize different parties or figures, such as in the acknowledgment of the reactions and emotions elicited among “userists” (supporters of USR) or those aligned with PNL and PSD. Creators often prioritize engagement, sometimes at the cost of alienating parts of their audience or crossing lines into potentially harmful territory, using memes to hold those in power accountable, which can be a driving force behind provocative content. However, this potential for memes to generate controversy and backlash from different political groups has been embraced as part of their content strategy, through a high number of memes criticizing PSD, as expressed by creators when asked what the most targeted political party is:

I think most of them dislike PSD. That’s also the structure of our meme bubble on Facebook, meaning most of us started by targeting PSD continuously, then moved on to PNL and extremist parties. (PARTICIPANT3)

anti-PSD memes were primarily posted to get reactions. (PARTICIPANT4)

This perspective aligns with the concept of “echo chambers” (Sunstein, 2001), where individuals or communities reinforce their existing beliefs and perspectives by selectively engaging with content that aligns with their views. Yet, meme creators acknowledge the potential risks and unintended consequences associated with the influence of political memes:

And without realising it, we may idolise a person who is super negative, or create a very, very false perception about someone just because we found it very funny in a few memes. It’s a risk that we should always keep in mind, in my opinion, when we let ourselves be somewhat influenced by political memes and amusement. (PARTICIPANT6)

This demonstrates the creator’s awareness of the potential risks and negative consequences that can arise when political memes, fake news, and propaganda intersect. It highlights the need for a discerning lens to navigate the potential for humorous framing to obscure underlying biases or misrepresentations. It also points to another position that meme creators have undertaken as potential societal watchdogs, using their platforms to scrutinize the actions of political institutions and actors. This is further exemplified by the need for meme creators to be mindful of their content and its potential impact on shaping public discourse:

But no political party should be able to make any decision they, whenever they want, without anyone to tell them and hold them accountable. Yes, they need someone to keep them in check. (PARTICIPANT5)

If things go bad and nothing is regulated, and everything is free in this part. But we’re getting into a part where memes and this reality that should be funny and educational combine with fake news and propaganda that can be super negative. (PARTICIPANT6)

This pragmatic approach to audience management highlights the meme creators’ recognition of the potential for toxic or disruptive behavior within their online communities. By establishing moderation practices and guidelines, they position themselves as gatekeepers, curating their audiences to maintain desired levels of discourse and engagement, as well as continuously scrutinizing political actors.

Overall, these findings reveal that meme creators exhibit a sophisticated awareness of the educational and informational potential of their content, recognizing their influence in facilitating discussions, sparking debates, and enhancing public understanding of complex political issues. Meme creators navigate the intricate dynamics of media literacy, participatory culture, and information diffusion, leveraging humor, satire, and engaging formats to make political narratives more accessible and captivating for their audiences. It illustrates how content creators must navigate the delicate balance between being entertaining, informative, and responsible, while also acknowledging the potential risks of their work.