Higher education,stakeholder interface and teacher formation for church schools

Introduction

Universities today engage with many sectors and organizations in the provision of higher education and lifelong learning. They adopt multiple roles and form relationships with a wide range of constituencies and stakeholders. New models of research and knowledge exchange occur not just internally among traditional academic communities of staff and students but externally through collaboration and partnerships with wider organizations and societies (Jongbloed et al., 2008). Research funding increasingly requires useable knowledge, the monitoring of impacts, and the articulation of research outcomes in ways that policymakers or practitioners find relevant and useful (Slunge et al., 2017). Core functions of teaching and knowledge dissemination bring universities into dialogue with external stakeholders that include government, corporate sponsors, public-service professions and community associations. Indeed, services for research, training, consultancy, professional development and continuing education are expected from universities today (Neave, 2000). As Jongbloed et al. (2008: 306) summarize, “Present day universities are forced to be in constant dialogue with their stakeholders in society.”

Within the UK higher-education sector, church-affiliated colleges and universities operate with complex roles and functions that serve multiple stakeholder constituencies, often with competing and conflicting agendas in a largely secular culture (Arthur, 2008). Many of these institutions were originally founded by the Catholic, Anglican and Methodist churches for the purpose of training teachers for both church and state schools. Most have now become fully-fledged universities and expanded their academic portfolios to cover the full range of disciplines, but they have traditionally specialized in teacher education. Today, recent government changes to initial teacher training in the UK allow for both university- and school-based routes. This is bringing the universities into research partnerships and collaborative knowledge exchange with external stakeholders who include religious sponsoring bodies and faith communities to support not just academic or professional studies but the ecclesial or faith dimensions of teacher education. This is a timely and challenging area for discussion. As demands on university resources become more dependent on market decisions and performance data, so universities face an increasingly complex choice over which stakeholder interests to prioritize and how to manage them. It is an issue that is especially pertinent to church-affiliated universities, whose foundational ethos and mission needs to find relevance and articulation in the secular academy and marketplace.

This article does not set out to evaluate the long-standing role and contribution of higher-education colleges and universities to Christian teacher formation. Instead, the article takes up a different discourse by asking about the complex nature of the interaction when church-affiliated universities are among the multiple stakeholders involved in the provision of Christian teacher education. This brings the universities into networks of relationships that extend beyond their own immediate staff and students and into involvement with the wider church community and its schools and practitioner bodies. So, the first question to be addressed is how to understand and analyse such interaction. What frameworks or tools of evaluation might be used to understand the complex intersection of collaboration and partnership (Wicks, 2014)? By way of response, the article firstly introduces some insights from interdisciplinary stakeholder theory. Then it presents a recent UK research case study, which involves a number of Catholic higher-education institutions in the delivery of a long-standing national course of adult theological formation that is commonly undertaken by both new and serving teachers. The case study offers an example to illustrate the nature of and challenges pertaining to the role that the universities play within a multiple stakeholder provision of teacher formation for church schools. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the need for greater understanding of stakeholder activity and its significance within Christian teacher education.

It is important from the outset to state the modest claims of this article. Much of the literature on stakeholder theory emanates from and is intended for business management or economic theory. This is not the expertise of this author, nor is it the thrust of this article. So, it is valid to question the relevance of employing ideas from stakeholder interaction theory as a framework for discussing the role of the universities in Christian teacher education. Stakeholder theory emerged initially from the world of commercial and financial thinking, although it has now been taken up by other sectors and academic disciplines, including healthcare, and environmental and social sciences (Andriof et al., 2002). Some have questioned whether the thinking behind stakeholder theory is relevant or even antithetical to religious and spiritual undertakings. Indeed, a separation thesis where the idea that religious and business or organizational management have nothing in common has been somewhat prevalent (Wicks, 2014). Stakeholder theory has thus not previously been associated with Christian teacher education. Critics may well object to what could appear as misappropriation of theories and concepts from a discipline that lies outside the realms of both education and ecclesiology.

However, this article suggests that while there is risk of criticism in taking stakeholder theory into an interdisciplinary arena that goes beyond its original boundaries, nevertheless it argues that there is value in drawing upon some of its core ideas in order to help conceptualize the changing nature of how universities are involved with religious and professional bodies in forming teachers for church schools today. It is hoped that this will be of interest and relevance to those involved in Christian higher-education research, mission and practice.

Insights from stakeholder interaction theory

Freeman (1984), one of the first contributors to the stakeholder discourse, defined stakeholders in broad terms as individuals or groups who can affect or who are affected by an organization's purpose or activities. Although there seems to be no universally accepted definition of the meaning or application of the term ‘stakeholder’, a growing body of theorists set out to explain how organizations function with respect to the various constituencies with whom they are involved (Andriof et al., 2002). Two aspects of stakeholder thinking can be briefly outlined in this section of the article. One aspect enquires as to who the stakeholders are in any given enterprise, and this, in turn, emphasizes the need for clear identification of the individuals and groups involved. As each stakeholder group may have their own unique set of attributes, demands, priorities and objectives, so the mapping and subsequent management of these interdependencies and possible conflicts of interest is paramount (Andriof et al., 2003). Stakeholder theory emphasizes the importance of relationship, seeing that this cannot be overlooked but rather must be understood as a complex interplay of shifting, sometimes ambiguous and contested connections between and within diverse organizations who, nevertheless, all invest some form of human, academic, spiritual, financial or professional capital into the enterprise. Therefore, stakeholder theory sees that collaborative strategies are needed to go beyond traditional corporate interest or linear movement of activity to invite partnership, dialogue and communication among the key players.

In addition to identifying who has a stake, the concept of salience offers a further contribution to identifying stakeholder characteristics and claims for engagement. This classifies stakeholders according to their relative importance, and distinguishes between their authority and power to influence an organization, the legitimacy (or relevance and appropriateness) of their relationship with the organization, and the urgency or seriousness of their claim for attention and activity in the organization. These attributes, and the varying degrees to which they may be present or lacking among diverse stakeholders, help determine the priority of their claims and interests. From this, stakeholders can be classed as either definitive (high), expectant (moderate) or latent (low) salience (Mitchell et al., 1997). This model helps to identify and explain different stakeholder behaviour.

In outlining some core underlying concepts from stakeholder theory, it is important to state that this way of thinking has been largely missing from the discourse concerning religion and spirituality (Carrascoso, 2014). However, limited examples can be referenced. Wicks (2014) promotes stakeholder theory to scholars of religion and spirituality for asking searching questions such as what kind of work or vocation should be sought or promoted, what the terms are on which co-operation and work with others should be built, how such relationships can be evaluated, and how organizations (religious or otherwise) can constructively support dialogue about human flourishing. Another aspect of stakeholder theory seeks the normative core, i.e. the purposes or reasons why an organization exists and the set of operating principles that shapes what it is about and what it does. When the normative core is grounded in religious tradition, then this should impact the way an organization acts ethically, professionally, educationally, financially etc. (Wicks, 2014).

Carrascoso (2014) develops the notion of stakeholder normative core in connection with the core tenets of Catholic social teaching, such as options for the common good, human development, and solidarity with the poor, to reframe them as norms to be applied by associated organizations and individuals. What is significant in his approach, which is primarily still aimed at a business readership, is the broadening of aspects of stakeholder theory into the religious domain. This is also evident in the discussion of stakeholder theory by Ray et al. (2014), who argue that the construction of principles drawn from religious faith traditions offers a compelling normative core to carry into stakeholder relations. In calling for further research, they seek more analysis on how belief systems that are manifest in the commitments of specific denominations, faith communities and religious organizations might further shape stakeholder theory. They see that exploration of the way that organizations, religious and otherwise, operate as stakeholder groups is useful for understanding their motives, missions, priorities and activities.

The above-mentioned literature is primarily articulated from within business and organizational management discourses. Jongbloed et al. (2008) apply stakeholder theory to the higher-education context and the need for every university to pay attention to the many communities and relationships it holds. The stakeholders associated with a university are multiple and diverse. The community of scholars, academic staff and students is the core internal constituency without which any university cannot properly function. But the core functions of the university's programmes, mission, outreach and engagements are likely to be also expressed in wider public domains. So, while traditional stakeholders include students, academics and researchers, governing bodies, funding organizations and research or practitioner sponsors, other relationships exist with commercial, industrial or professional partners (Jongbloed et al., 2008). For universities engaged in Christian teacher education, this may well include working with and alongside national church agencies, and local schools or dioceses. We now turn to a UK research case study to explore the complex academic, ecclesial and professional relationships that exist within the provision of teacher education and the part that a number of Catholic universities and higher-education institutions play in this.

Research case study

The next section of this article connects the preliminary ideas presented from stakeholder theory to findings drawn from a recent research report on the Catholic Certificate in Religious Studies (CCRS; Stuart-Buttle, 2019). The CCRS has provided theological education across England and Wales since 1991–92 to adults wishing to deepen their formal knowledge of the Catholic faith tradition. Since the year 2000, over 20,000 adults have been registered onto the course. The largest participant group to date has been teachers and those training for or working in the education sector, often undertaking the course for professional development or to secure employment in a Catholic school. Research indicates that those working in education roles comprise the majority (87%) of the overall participant cohort. The CCRS has thus acted as both vehicle and benchmark for theological formation for teachers across the country since the early 1990s. Course standards and curriculum requirements are laid down by the national awarding body, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales' Board of Religious Studies. Eight modular components are required with fixed contact time and mandatory assessment. Six core modules cover Old and New Testaments, Christology, Ecclesiology, Sacraments and Morality, while two elective specialist modules allow a more practical application as determined by local specification.

In light of the twenty-fifth anniversary since the CCRS began, a research project was set up to enable educational conversation and theological reflection about the nature and provision of adult theological education in contemporary religious, political, socio-cultural and educational contexts. Since its inauguration, the CCRS has developed policies, curriculum enhancements and teaching and learning strategies, while the Board of Religious Studies leadership as well as the local providing bodies and student audiences have changed over time. The wider educational, religious and cultural contexts facing the CCRS today are different from those of 25 years ago. Particular concerns over how to maintain a commitment to the Christian educational mission in schools given a diminishing number of committed or actively practising Christian teachers has occupied recent attention. Some form of theological formation is seen as desirable, both in preparing new entrants for the profession and as continuing development for those already serving in our schools (Engebretson, 2014; Robinson, 2002; Stuart-Buttle, 2017). Teachers need to be professionally qualified and pedagogically skilled, not just in their academic disciplines but to enable their participation in and contribution to the distinctive Christian nature and mission of the school (McKinney and Sullivan, 2013).

The research project set out to seek a systematic exploration of the CCRS to take account of both the participant experience and stakeholder expectations. Core questions were asked about the role and purpose of CCRS, what sort of theological learning occurs, why people study, what impact is made, and what is needed for the future. The research design consisted of two phases. A Phase One online survey was targeted at past and present course participants, but the actual number of the target population was impossible to ascertain owing to the way national and local records are kept. For this reason, CCRS participating dioceses and local centres were asked to disseminate an online survey link to their past and current students. This attracted a sample population of just short of 1500 responses, from which quantitative data for statistical analysis as well as qualitative data coded and categorized for thematic analysis purposes was drawn. The Phase Two interviews were conducted with CCRS stakeholders, who included bishops, diocesan education directors, CCRS tutors and head teachers in primary and secondary schools. The interviews were recorded using digital voice recording apparatus before then being professionally transcribed and saved in electronic form for subsequent thematic coding and analysis. Reporting of all data from both project phases was kept anonymous so as to be in keeping with ethical guidelines and good research practice.

The final research report concludes that there is much to value and celebrate in the contribution of CCRS to adult formation across England and Wales. The majority of participants testify that they study CCRS in order to enhance their knowledge and understanding of Christian faith. They speak of the positive impact of gaining theological knowledge and understanding for both personal formation and professional development. When asked specifically about this, 86 percent affirmed that CCRS helped them explore their own faith and beliefs, 90 percent said it informed their knowledge and understanding of Catholic faith, 81 percent said it deepened their critical reflection about their faith, 80 percent said it gave confidence in communicating and articulating faith to others, 69 percent said the course helped them to integrate theology with their professional practice, 77 percent said it contributed to their spiritual development, and 70 percent said it motivated them to further action in school or parish. The stakeholder interviews largely concur with and support these findings. While both sets of data from across the two project phases also indicate areas of tension and challenge from both course participant experience and stakeholder perspectives, the overall data from the research case study confirms the CCRS to be a valuable resource for supporting teacher education across the country.

Connecting stakeholder theory with the research case study

We have already seen that stakeholder theory fundamentally assumes the existence of a relationship between an organization and its stakeholders that is based on some form of mutual interest and activity (Andriof et al., 2003). When considering this in light of the CCRS, the universities involved in delivering the course are providing institutions with their own set of internal audiences, priorities and demands, but, at the same time, are embedded into a wider network of relationships with other CCRS providers. Some key questions can be asked concerning the stakeholders in CCRS as to what their particular stake is and where the universities fit in. Furthermore, what sort of stakeholder salience do the universities themselves present to the CCRS in terms of specific claims and priorities? What contradictions of purpose or urgency might exist? The remainder of the article now sets out to explore such questions.

Conclusion

Jongbloed et al. (2008) state that universities are expected to be excellent in their core functions of teaching and research in the academy, as well as entrepreneurial and pastoral in their approach to students. At the same time, they are to be collegial yet competitive in relating to other knowledge providers, and both local and (inter)national in their public service and mission. The changing nature of higher education means that there is an increasingly complex context for understanding and managing diverse stakeholder relations and interests.

This article has suggested that core aspects of stakeholder theory, a well-recognized paradigm in other disciplines, can offer a useful framework for insight and analysis. So far, there has been a lack of critical literature to unpack the complexity of stakeholder relations with application to Christian education and teacher formation for church schools. This is something this article sets out to remedy and also to encourage for future research. In presenting the CCRS research case study by way of one illustrative example, stakeholder theory can be shown to support the identification of various community involvements and the clarification of whose perspective or priorities are to be taken into account. While the limits of deploying stakeholder insights are acknowledged, nevertheless they enable both conceptualization and evaluation of the complex nature of the interaction when church-affiliated universities are among the multiple stakeholders involved in the provision of Christian education. This is significant for universities and higher-education institutions whose Christian mission and foundational values lie at the heart of their academic enterprise.