Teachers’ Reflective Practices in Implementing Assessment for Learning Skills in Classroom Teaching

Background

While Early Childhood Education in Hong Kong has undergone dramatic changes related to the education reform of curriculum development and school improvement during the past few years, the Education Bureau of Hong Kong SAR (EDB, 2010a) states that “the aim of pre-primary education in Hong Kong is to provide children with a relaxing and pleasurable learning environment to promote a balanced development of different aspects necessary to a child’s development, such as the physical, intellectual, language, social, emotional and aesthetic aspects” (section 1 “pre-primary services,” para. 3). Therefore, pre-primary education is intended to provide children with a significant foundation for life-long learning and whole-person development.

Although both kindergarten and primary school teachers are now facing the increased expectations of the present education reform, they can also benefit directly from the professional development and training available from the process of academic expansion. What teachers need most is to enhance their teaching skills from pedagogic knowledge. When discussing the instructional practice of teachers, it is believed that “effective self-reflection is a key component of excellent teaching” (Bell et al., 2010, p. 57), and “reflective practice can be a beneficial process in teacher professional development” (Ferraro, 2000, para. 1).

The aim of this article is to review the work on teachers’ reflective practice, which has been identified from teachers’ reflective statements followed by class observation of their teaching exercise in a school improvement project.

The trend of reflective practice in Early Childhood Education in Hong Kong

In 2000, the Hong Kong SAR Education Commission (2000) published Learning for Life, Learning Through Life: Reform Proposals for the Education System in Hong Kong, which proposed initiatives “to enhance the professional standards of early childhood educators” (p. 49, para. 8.1.4) and “to enhance quality assurance mechanisms” (p. 56, para. 8.1.19). Learning from this, it is essential to upgrade the academic qualifications of early childhood teachers. Later, the Curriculum Development Council of Hong Kong SAR (CDC, 2006) published the Guide to the Pre-Primary Curriculum to provide “general directions for curriculum development for pre-primary practitioners: to widen the space for learning; to be child-centered; to respect individual differences; to promote motivation for learning and to care for children’s needs” (p. 10). In other words, there is a trend toward educating kindergarten teachers to be reflective practitioners “who review, reconstruct, reenact, and critically analyze their own and their students’ performances, and who formulate explanations with evidence” (McIntyre & O’Hair, 1996, p. 2). To put it simply, reflective teachers determine the curriculum and instruction proactively. They introduce practices to improve classroom teaching and make an impact on their students, school, and community. Bell et al. (2010) highlight Kahn et al.’s (2006) review that reflective practice exerts several benefits for academic development, including “increased capacity for reflective processes; enhanced capacity for practice; development of personal qualities; establishment of supportive relationships between those involved in the reflective processes; and transformation of practice” (p. 58). It is understandable that self-reflective exercises can enhance teachers’ ability to facilitate and support teaching and learning with appropriate performance. In short, “reflective teachers scrutinize their procedures, make decisions, and alter their behavior” (Tompkins, 2009, p. 223) when practicing teaching and promoting a good learning environment for students. Indeed, if engaging teachers in analyzing their own thoughts for personal inspection, introspection, and analysis, teaching can be improved (McIntyre & O’Hair, 1996). That is why there is a trend of carrying out self-reflection by teachers after teaching, in order to enhance professional effectiveness. Reflecting on their practice, teachers can improve their teaching techniques and acquire new knowledge of learning theories and teaching methods.

What is Assessment for Learning?

Traditionally, assessment has been used in competitive ranking students’ achievement in learning (Connell et al., 1982, p. 185) and inevitably produces academic winners and losers even since the children first enter their elementary class. Students, who succeed early, will build on winning streaks to learn more as they grow; whereas, those who fail early will often fall farther and farther behind (Stiggins, 2007, p. 22).

According to Nisbet (1993), assessment has pervasive influence in schooling as it affects how children learn and how teachers teach. It always impacts on the learning process through the washback effect (Alderson & Wall, 1993), cramming and rote learning—to the extent that learning for assessment is almost as important as the genuine learning, which these assessments are originally devised to measure (Nisbet, 1993, p. 25).

Education today has shifted from its “sorter and sifter” role to a gap-bridging role for learning differences found in classrooms. As teachers, our mission is not to “let students who have not yet met standards fall into losing streaks, succumb to hopelessness, and stop trying” (Nisbet, 1993, p. 25), instead we must strive on assisting them to experience success in learning according to their own pace. Thus, the purpose of adopting assessments in the curriculum evolutes from verifying learning to supporting learning, that is, Assessment for Learning (AfL)—assessment that has learning as its object and through which our students understand where they are and what they can do next in the process of learning (Connell et al., 1982, p. 200). As Stiggins (2007, p. 22) states, “Rather than sorting students into winners and losers, assessment for learning can put all students on a winning streak.” By analyzing 250 papers on formative assessments in classrooms by researchers in different countries, Black and Wiliam (1998a, 1998b) found that formative assessment could improve students’ learning substantially through:

Black et al. (2004, p. 10) further define that AfL “is any assessment for which the first priority in its design and practice is to serve the purpose of promoting students’ learning” through providing useful information in modifying learning and teaching. In order to promote better learning, schools are encouraged to put more emphasis on AfL as an integral part of the learning, teaching, and assessment cycle. This means that the curriculum is responsible for setting out what students should learn in terms of learning targets or objectives, while the assessment serves as a means to collect evidence of student learning by assessing both the learning product (i.e., the learning targets and content that students are expected to achieve) and the learning process (i.e., how they learn). Most importantly, teachers should use the information collected by the assessment practice as the basis for decisions on improving learning and teaching, and informing students about their strengths and weaknesses. At the same time, students’ motivation and interest of learning will be reinforced with teachers’ recognition of their achievements and provision of necessary steps for improvement (Black & Wiliam, 1998a; CDC, 2001). Another important function of AfL is facilitating students’ self-evaluation so that they can become independent learners in the future.

AfL is a connection of learning and teaching with assessment. This is a way to narrow the “gap” between students’ learning and the desired goal. When teachers practice AfL, students know what they are expected to learn. Throughout the teaching process, teachers and students work together to assess students’ learning and achieve learning improvement ultimately as students are informed with their learning performance. In this case, self-reflective formative assessment is urged, and AfL will occur at different stages of the learning process.

It is acknowledged that every student is unique and has his/her own ability and various potentials. In order to promote better learning, AfL has been conducted “as an integral part of the curriculum, learning and teaching, and feedback cycle” (EDB, 2010b, para. 2). In the report entitled Learning to Learn—The Way Forward in Curriculum Development, it was recommended that more emphasis be put on AfL (CDC, 2001, pp. 80–81). It is important that teachers “identify and diagnose student learning problems, and provide quality feedback to students on how to improve their work” (EDB, 2010b, para. 1). In line with the above ideas, teachers in the AfL project are encouraged to (a) share their learning goals with their students at the beginning of the lesson, (b) utilize effective questioning techniques to tap students’ understanding, (c) use effective feedback strategies, and (d) encourage peer and self-assessment to enable students to recognize their strengths and weaknesses for improving their own learning. Besides, “collection of pupil’s learning evidence” and “reflection on teaching and learning” are the other two dominant elements to achieve the aim of AfL (see Figure 1). Teachers regularly collect evidence and revise data from a variety of information sources including students’ work in progress, portfolios, observation, interactive conversation, and so on. With the evidence and revised data, teachers can provide quality feedback to the learners who are then capable of reaching new levels of learning and achieving their full potential. In the self-reflective process, “the individuality of feedback, by its very nature, has the facility to support weaker learners and challenge more able learners” (Jones, 2005, p. 5). With formative assessment, teachers can know the progress of students’ learning and make necessary adjustment, try alternative instructional approaches with minor modifications or major changes to support further teaching and learning, and offer more chances for practice in order to permit students to set their own goals (Boston, 2002).

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 1.

Theoretical framework for AfL in classroom teaching. Note. AfL = Assessment for Learning.

These advantages of formative assessment can also help to enhance students’ success when the previously mentioned evidence or feedback is broadly used to support the adaptation of teaching and learning to meet students’ needs. Thus, AfL is mutually beneficial to teachers and students.

An overview of reflective teaching

A research into teachers’ reflective practices in Hong Kong schools

There were 10 primary schools and 10 kindergartens participating in the school development project. Since AfL is an important component in learning and teaching, it is worthy to examine teachers’ practice in adopting AfL teaching strategies in their daily teaching. This study aims at exploring (a) teachers’ practices of self-reflection on the effectiveness of using the nine AfL elements and the respective recommendations for improvement and (b) how teachers use the evidence collected inside and outside the lessons to adjust their teaching practice. Attempts were made to answer the following two questions: (1) What would be the teachers’ practices of AfL strategies in classroom teaching from their own assessment? (2) What would be the teachers’ suggestions for improvement in AfL strategies, based on their own reflection? (See the Appendix)

Research findings

Teachers’ self-assessment on the practice of AfL strategies

After conducting observation of the 34 lessons, teachers were asked to assess their practices on the AfL skills during the lessons, based on their own reflection. The quantitative results of the self-assessments were summarized in Table 1, which shows the extents to which teachers in primary schools and teachers in kindergartens had practiced on the AfL strategies.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Table 1.

Comparison of self-assessment on the AfL strategies between kindergarten teachers (N = 17) and primary school teachers (N = 17) in the study.

AfL strategies	Kindergarten teachers’ self-assessment (mean)	Primary school teachers’ self-assessment (mean)	T-value	2-Tail significance
Sharing of learning objectives	2.73	3.19	−1.60	0.109
Sharing of success criteria*	2.56	3.04	−0.31	0.024*
Questioning techniques	2.88	2.84	−0.12	0.907
Class observations	3.31	3.07	−0.42	0.741
Student self-assessment	2.77	2.87	−0.09	0.101
Peer assessment*	2.75	3.33	−5.90	0.012*
Feedback to students	3.01	2.92	−0.11	0.625
Collection of pupils’ learning evidence**	3.52	3.02	−6.12	0.001**
Reflection on teaching and learning	3.02	3.14	−0.53	0.864

Note. AfL = Assessment for Learning.

* Coefficient, which is significant at the 0.05 level.

** Coefficient, which is significant at the 0.001 level.

When comparing the AfL teaching strategies used between kindergartens and primary schools in the study, there are significant differences between them in the use of “sharing of success criteria,” “peer assessment,” and “collection of pupils’ learning evidence” in the lessons observed (see Table 1). For example, primary school teachers outperformed kindergarten teachers in adopting the first two AfL strategies but were weaker than the latter in “collection of pupils’ learning evidence” during the lessons.

The results of the present study indicate that all the AfL teaching strategies were well utilized (mean > 2.50) by the participating schools as a whole in the study, particularly in the areas of “class observations,” “peer assessment,” “collection of pupils’ learning evidence,” and “reflection on teaching and learning” (mean > 3.00).

It could be interpreted that the project has a positive impact on teachers of the participating schools through promoting the importance of AfL in classrooms. Through the training program and whole-school workshops in the project, teachers’ awareness and competence of AfL strategies have been enhanced to a certain extent.

With reference to the quality assurance inspection annual reports (EDB, 2008, 2009) that Hong Kong teachers are generally weak in using AfL skills in their daily teaching, it seems that the findings of the present study have yielded a rather different result. This discrepancy may be due to the fact that the 2-year intervention is successful in cultivating an AfL teaching and learning atmosphere in the project schools. The training program, whole-school workshops, and lesson observations among peer teachers may be effective in helping the participating schools to institutionalize an AfL framework in their daily practices, assisting teachers to understand the AfL principles and to acquire the necessary skills and techniques for planning and implementing AfL in their everyday teaching, as well as promoting professional exchange concerning AfL practice among the project schools.

It is interesting to note that primary school teachers are more inclined to share the success criteria of the task(s) with their students and incorporate peer assessment in their lessons than kindergarten teachers. It generally agrees that teachers seem to provide explicit success criteria for learning activities to older children more frequently than to younger ones. It can be interpreted that kindergarten teachers may perceive that it is rather difficult for them to explain the success criteria to younger children owing to the children’s limited vocabulary. A similar reason may contribute to the significant difference in incorporating peer assessment between kindergarten and primary school classes, where kindergarten teachers may assume that the toddlers may not be able to make comments on their classmates’ work or performance owing to a lack of vocabulary.

In terms of “collection of pupils’ learning evidence” in the lessons, kindergarten teachers seem to use this AfL strategy much more often than primary school teachers. It may be due to the fact that EDB (2009) has stated clearly that kindergarten teachers should not use dictations, tests, or examinations to assess young children’s ability or performance. Instead, teachers are highly recommended to have assessments based on continuous observations, where evidence for students’ achievement or progress made in various aspects should be collected or recorded. Thus, it is rather legitimate for kindergarten teachers to incorporate this AfL strategy in their lessons than their counterparts. On the other hand, because of the large class size and packed curriculum, it is rather difficult for primary school teachers to make observations on individual students in class; therefore, they may mainly rely on test and examination results to evaluate their students’ progress.

Discussion

With the above evidence of reflection by the teachers, which was extracted and generalized from the reflective statements on the 34 reflection forms, it is believed that they can contribute to “supporting the progressive development of higher standards of teaching” (Pollard, 2002, p. 16). The process of reflective teaching provides a dynamic basis for teacher action. This is a teacher-based and action-research movement with self-reflection on teachers’ teaching. As a reflective practitioner, a teacher should have good analytical and evaluative skills to process practical inquiry about teaching and make pragmatic judgment. The participating teachers in this study have got reflective teaching, which requires specific attitudes of “open-mindedness, responsibility, and wholeheartedness.” These three attitudes are the central and vital ingredients for the kind of professional commitment—reflective practice. Being a reflective practitioner, a teacher will be attentive to self-awareness about the impact of his or her performance that will create chances for professional growth and development (Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004; Pollard, 2002).

When talking about the reflective practice or teachers as reflective practitioners, it is to say “thinking about teaching” (Dymoke & Harrison, 2008). The participating teachers in this study have self-reflection by themselves according to the nine AfL elements.

With the findings of the reflection form, it is to highlight the two perspectives of reflection for students and teachers—that is, for learning and teaching. It is believed that both the learners and instructors can take the role of practitioners. They are the most important sources of insight into teaching that we can access.

When conducting reflective teaching for students, it is suggested that teachers should provide sufficient time for students to discuss and share the teaching content within a situated learning environment. This is very important because too little time for discussion in an AfL lesson will block the way for students to get a holistic picture with a reflective sight. As a result, both students and teachers cannot critically reflect on learning and teaching. However, the purpose of reflective teaching is for teachers to explore how much they, as reflective practitioners, can see from their practice in new ways. Time is essential for the practice of self-reflection. In the process of reflection, students are expected to receive timely feedback or guidance since these are constructive and useful for their further learning. Demonstration of students’ learning and work is encouraged (Brookfield, 1995, p. 121). “Students say that hearing their own anonymous comments reported back to them as part of a commonly articulated class concern somehow legitimized what had formerly been felt as a purely private and personal reaction” (Brookfield, 1995, p. 122). This has shown that students among themselves can benefit from reflection also.

For teachers, the advantages of self-reflection on teaching are:

Knowing how to better design the planned curriculum and implement the taught curriculum so that teachers can draw on several disciplines from reflection to construct a holistic, hopeful, and meaningful focus for study.

Conclusion

This article aims to reintroduce the concepts of reflective teaching to both teachers and policymakers and recall the importance of teachers playing the role of reflective practitioners.

In the literature review, it is to define what “reflective teaching” is since it is subject to differing orientations. By showing the process of reflective teaching, it is to highlight how it relates to the “reflective spiral.” Reflective practice is interrelated with action research in the “spiral cycle,” starting with planning, then acting, observing, and reflecting. The form of research for this article is similar to this iterative and cyclical process, which reflects on practice, takes an action, reflects again, and takes further action. In fact, each cycle points the way to different actions for improvement in the next stage. Very often, reflective practitioners will act within the situated context that they will find various ways to change their own behaviors and improve themselves. Indeed, peer coaching is usually integrated into reflective practice when practitioners get oral and written feedback from their coaches. In the process of peer coaching, practitioners also reflect on their own practices and try to apply the knowledge to their own teaching. Teachers, as reflective practitioners, are professional experts who can assure the quality of teaching and the initiators of professional development.

This university–school partnership project is a case in point for the successful implementation of the reflective spiral in the process of school improvement. Most teachers may not be aware of its importance in self-reflection and self-determination in improvement. The SDOs in this project have played a role of peer coaches to the participating schools and introduced the concept of and practice on how reflective spiral can contribute to school improvement. After the completion of the project, the teachers who have experienced the process of reflective spiral can still keep their momentum and motivation to lead and manage the school improvement processes.

There were 20 participating schools, with 34 teachers for taking the role of reflective practitioners in the AfL project. The findings have shown that teachers reflected positively with the nine AfL elements. They obtained a lot of positive ideas to support further teaching practices. They had feedback from the coaches (SDOs) and started to reflect and present themselves with the reflective statements on the self-reflection forms (N = 34). When stating how to make use of the learning evidence that teachers collected inside/outside the classroom to revise their teaching schedule and content, most teachers claimed that two reflection aspects would be particularly helpful: one for students/learners and the other for teachers/instructors. When talking about how to revise the teaching schedule and content, it was found that time for discussion, self-assessment and peer assessment, and demonstration are all very important. Using reflective teaching, practitioners should strongly and consistently associate their reflection with effective teaching behaviors for improving the curriculum, understanding the competence of teachers and students, promoting professional development, and facilitating the work within the community.