This study examined the efficacy of a brief, bystander bullying intervention (STAC) among high school students using a randomized controlled design. Results indicate that intervention students reported significantly greater reductions in bullying victimization at a 30-day follow-up compared to control students. At 3 months, although the intervention group sustained initial effects, control students also reported significant reductions in victimization. Findings from this pilot study provide preliminary support for the intervention.
BanduraA. (1970). Modeling theory: Some traditions, trends, and disputes. In SahakianW. S. (Ed.), Psychology of learning: Systems, models, and theories (pp. 35–61). Markham. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-545050-8.50008-0
5.
BaumanS.YoonJ.IurinoC.HackettL. (2020). Experiences of adolescent witnesses to peer victimization: The bystander effect. Journal of School Psychology, 80, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.03.002
6.
CantoneE.PirasA. P.VellanteM.PretiA.DaníelsdóttirS.D’AlojaE.LesinskieneS.AngermeyerM. C.CartaM. G.BhugraD. (2015). Interventions on bullying and cyberbullying in schools: A systematic review. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 11(Suppl. 1: M4), 58–76. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901511010058
7.
CaravitaS.Di BlasioP.SalmivalliC. (2009). Unique and interactive effects of empathy and social status on involvement in bullying. Social Development, 18(1), 140–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00465.x
8.
CatoneG.SignorielloS.PisanoS.SicilianoM.RussoK.MarottaR.CarotenutoM.BroomeM. R.GrittiA.SeneseV. P.PascottoA. (2019). Epidemiological pattern of bullying using a multi-assessment approach: Results from the Bullying and Youth Mental Health Naples Study (BYMHNS). Child Abuse & Neglect, 89, 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.018
ChalamandarisA. G.PietteD. (2015). School-based anti-bullying interventions: Systematic review of the methodology to assess their effectiveness. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24, 131–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.04.004
11.
CohenJ. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.
12.
CookC. R.WilliamsK. R.GuerraN. G.KimT. E.SadekS. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149
13.
DeSmetA.RodelliM.WalraveM.SoenensB.CardonG.De BourdeaudhuijI. (2018). Cyberbullying and traditional bullying involvement among heterosexual and non-heterosexual adolescents, and their associations with age and gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 254–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.010
14.
DoumasD. M.MidgettA.JohnstonA. (2017). Substance use and bully victimization among middle and high school students: Is positive school climate a protective factor?Journal of Addiction and Offender Counseling, 38(1), 2–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaoc.12025
15.
DoumasD. M.MidgettA.WattsA. D. (2019a). The impact of a brief, bullying bystander intervention on internalizing symptoms: Is gender a moderator of intervention effects?School Psychology International, 40(3), 275–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034319830149
16.
DoumasD. M.MidgettA.WattsA. D. (2019b). A pilot evaluation of the social validity of a bullying bystander program adapted for high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 56, 1101–1116. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22249
17.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA. G.BuchnerA. (2007). G*Power3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
18.
FredrickS. S.DemarayM. K. (2018). Peer victimization and suicidal ideation: The role of gender and depression in a school-based sample. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.02.001
19.
GaffneyH.TtofiM.FarringtonD. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of school-bullying prevention programs: An updated meta-analytical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.001
20.
GoldbergJ. M.SkladM.ElfrinkT. R.SchreursK. M.BohlmeijerE. T.ClarkeA. M. (2019). Effectiveness of interventions adopting a whole school approach to enhancing social and emotional development: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 34(4), 755–782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-018-0406-9
21.
HemphillS. A.TollitM.KotevskiA.HeerdeJ. A. (2015). Predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying victimization: A longitudinal study of Australian secondary school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(15), 2567–2590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514553636
22.
JohnstonA.DoumasD. M.MidgettA.MoroR. (2017). Gender differences in the relationship between bullying victimization and substance use among high school students. Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 3(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/23727810.2017.1280749
23.
JohnstonA.MidgettA.DoumasD. M.MoodyS. (2018). A mixed methods evaluation of the “aged-up” STAC bullying bystander intervention for high school students. The Professional Counselor, 8, 73–87. https://doi.org/10.15241/adj.8.1.73
24.
LevesqueD. A.JohnsonJ. L.ProchaskaJ. M. (2017). Teen Choices, an online stage-based program for healthy, nonviolent relationships: Development and feasibility trial. Journal of School Violence, 16(4), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2016.1147964
25.
LitwillerB. J.BrauschA. M. (2013). Cyber bullying and physical bullying in adolescent suicide: The role of violent behavior and substance use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(5), 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9925-5
26.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M. (2019). The impact of a brief, bullying bystander intervention on depressive symptoms. Journal of Counseling & Development, 97(3), 27–280. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12267
27.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M. (2020). Acceptability and short-term outcomes of a brief, bystander intervention program to decrease bullying in an ethnically blended school in a low-income community. Contemporary School Psychology, 24, 508–517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-020-00321-w
28.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.JohnstonA. (2018). Establishing school counselors as leaders in bullying curriculum delivery: Evaluation of a brief, school-wide bystander intervention. Professional School Counseling, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X18778781
29.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.JohnstonA.TrullR.MillerR. (2018). Re-thinking bullying interventions for high school students: A qualitative study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 4, 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/23727810.2017.1381932
30.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.MoranM.GalloL. (2020). Evaluation of a brief, school-based bystander bullying intervention: A pilot study conducted at an ethnically blended, low-income school. Journal of Educational and Psychological Research, 2(2), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X20940641
31.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.PeraltaC.BondL.FlayB. (2020). Impact of a brief, bystander bullying prevention program on depressive symptoms and passive suicidal ideation: A program evaluation model for school personnel. Journal of Prevention and Health Promotion, 1(1), 80–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/2632077020942959
32.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.SearsD.LunquistA.HausheerR. (2015). A bystander bullying psychoeducation program with middle school students: A preliminary report. The Professional Counselor, 5(4), 486–500. https://doi.org/10.15241/am.5.4.486
33.
MidgettA.DoumasD. M.TrullR. (2017). Evaluation of a brief, school-based bullying bystander intervention for elementary school students. Professional School Counseling, 20(1), 172–183. https://doi.org/10.5330/1096-2409-20.1.172
34.
MoranM.MidgettA.DoumasD. M. (2020). Evaluation of a brief, bystander bullying intervention (STAC) for ethnically blended middle schools in low-income communities. Professional School Counseling, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X20940641
35.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Student reports of bullying: Results from the 2017 school crime supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCES 2017-015). U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019054.pdf
36.
NickersonA. B.FredrickS. S.AllenK. P.JenkinsL. N. (2019). Social emotional learning (SEL) practices in schools: Effects on perceptions of bullying victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 73, 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.03.002
37.
OlweusD. (1993). Bully/victim problems among school children: Long-term consequences and an effective intervention program. In HodginsS. (Ed.), Mental disorder and crime (pp. 317–349). Sage.
38.
OlweusD. (1996). The Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Research Center for Health Promotion (HEMIL Center), University of Bergen.
39.
OlweusD.LimberS. P.BreivikK. (2019). Addressing specific forms of bullying: A large-scale evaluation of the Olweus bullying prevention program. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1(1), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-00009-7
40.
ParkerJ. G.RubinK. H.ErathS. A.WojslawowiczJ. C.BuskirkA. A. (2006). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In CicchettiD.CohenD. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, theory and method (pp. 419–493). Wiley.
41.
ProchaskaJ. O.DiClementeC. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(3), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.51.3.390
42.
RichardsonJ. T. E. (2011). Eta squared and partial eta squared as measurements of effect size in educational research. Educational Research Review, 6(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2010.12.001
43.
SalmivalliC.KarnaA.PoskipartaE. (2010a). Development, evaluation, and diffusion of a national anti-bullying program, KiVa. In DollB.PfohlW.YoonJ. (Eds.), Handbook of youth prevention science (pp. 240–254). Routledge.
44.
SalmivalliC.KarnaA.PoskipartaE. (2010b). From peer put downs to peer support: A theoretical model and how it translated into a national anti-bullying program. In ShimersonS.SwearerS.EspelageD. (Eds.), The handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 441–454). Routledge.
45.
SalmivalliC.VoetenM.PoskipartaE. (2011). Bystanders matter: Associations between reinforcing, defending, and the frequency of bullying behavior in classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(5), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.597090
46.
SawyerA. L.BradshawC. P.O’BrennanL. M. (2008). Examining ethnic, gender, and developmental differences in the way children report being a victim of “bullying” on self-report measures. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.12.011
47.
SchneiderS. K.O’DonnellL.StueveA.CoulterR. W. (2012). Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300308
48.
SolbergM. E.OlweusD. (2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10047
49.
Timmons-MitchellJ.LevesqueD. A.HarrisL. A.IIIFlanneryD. J.FalconeT. (2016). Pilot test of StandUp, an online school-based bullying prevention program. Children & Schools, 38(2), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdw010
50.
van der PloegR.KretschmerT.SalmivalliC.VeenstraR. (2017). Defending victims: What does it take to intervene in bullying and how is it rewarded by peers?Journal of School Psychology, 65, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.06.002
51.
Vivolo-KantorA. M.MartellB. N.HollandK. M.WestbyR. (2014). A systematic review and content analysis of bullying and cyber-bullying measurement strategies. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 423–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.06.008
52.
WattsA. D.DoumasD. M.MidgettA. (2019). Efficacy of a brief, school-based bystander bullying intervention on high school students’ alcohol use. Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, 40(2), 66–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaoc.12066
53.
WilliamsonA. A.ModeckiK. L.GuerraN. G. (2015). SEL programs in high school. In DurlakJ. A.DomitrovichC. E.WeissbergR. P.GullottaT. P. (Eds.), Handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice (pp. 181–196). Guilford.
54.
WillifordA.ElledgeL. C.BoultonA. J.DePaolisK. J.LittleT. D.SalmivalliC. (2013). Effects of the KiVa antibullying program on cyberbullying and cybervictimization frequency among Finnish youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(6), 820–833. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.787623
55.
YangC.ChanM. K.MaT. L. (2020). School-wide social emotional learning (SEL) and bullying victimization: Moderating role of school climate in elementary, middle, and high schools. Journal of School Psychology, 82, 49–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.08.002
56.
YeagerD. S.FongC. J.LeeH. Y.EspelageD. L. (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 37, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.005
