School Counselor Perceptions and Knowledge of Trauma-Informed Practices

Abstract

This study explored school counselors’ perceptions and knowledge of trauma-informed practices, self-efficacy in promoting these practices, and the extent to which school counseling programs provided relevant training. A majority of participants believed they were not sufficiently prepared in their school counseling programs. The culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework outlines knowledge and skills needed to promote trauma-informed practices, such as the need for ongoing self-reflection. I discuss implications for school counselors and school counseling programs.

Keywords

trauma-informed practices school counselors school counseling programs counselor education educator identity

Among school staff, school counselors are considered experts for initiating and leading trauma-informed practices (Alexander & Hinrichs, 2019; O’Grady, 2017). Indeed, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) states in its position statement on trauma:

School counselors understand the impact adverse childhood experiences have on students’ academic achievement and social/emotional development. School counselors strive to identify, support, and promote the success of students who have experienced trauma through the implementation of a data-informed school counseling program” (2016b, para. 1).

As schools have returned to in-person learning, the goal for many school counselors will be to develop a trauma-informed, comprehensive school counseling program. The impacts of COVID-19, which include “new grief, loss, and trauma, and possible increased risk for violence and abuse in the home” (Halladay Goldman et al., 2020, p. 1), makes a trauma-informed counseling program imperative to address the potential effects of trauma and child traumatic stress reactions (National Child Traumatic Stress Network [NCTSN], 2021).

Despite the critical role school counselors can play in promoting trauma-informed practices, their actual knowledge and skills may be limited. For example, the literature describes components of trauma-informed practices to emphasize in school counselor training, such as compassion fatigue, creating community partnerships, developing a positive school climate and culture, and reimagining discipline practices (Martinez et al., 2020; O’Grady, 2017). However, these elements, among others, are not necessarily taught in school counseling preparation programs.

Chatters and Liu (2020) discussed limits of the extant literature on reviews of counseling graduate programs that provide trauma education and found that many programs do not provide a course focusing on trauma or consider trauma education to be an integral component of the core curriculum. This is despite support from accrediting organizations, such as the Council of Accreditation of Counseling & Related Educational Programs (CACREP), that promotes the training on the impact of trauma on human development as well as trauma-informed interventions (CACREP, 2016). Consistent with a lack of research on trauma education across all counseling programs, the literature does not explore the needs specific to school counselors.

As school counselors develop their trauma-informed programming, a primary aim is to identify students who may need additional support (Martinez et al., 2020). A critical step for school counselors is evaluating the effectiveness of trauma-informed policies and practices of their schools and districts to ensure that students affected by trauma are appropriately supported. To accomplish this, school counselors need training on trauma-informed assessment tools to determine which students require more intensive care (Sink, 2016), and tools to evaluate current implementation of trauma-informed practices (Kataoka et al., 2018). Moreover, to ensure success in implementing trauma-informed programming, all school personnel must receive training in trauma-informed practices (Alexander & Hinrichs, 2019; Thomas et al., 2019). Training all staff helps to improve the school climate, culture, and learning environment, and increase students’ sense of school attachment and access to instruction (Cole et al., 2013). School counselors play a role in training staff on trauma-informed practices because they can assume a “leadership role in coordinating and/or delivering professional development and ongoing trauma-related training” (Rumsey & Milsom, 2019, p. 4).

In light of the work school counselors can perform to promote trauma-informed practices, assessing whether they have received appropriate training to do so is important. Prior literature does not elucidate whether school counselors are trained in and feel confident about leading trauma-informed initiatives. To address this void in knowledge, research is needed to explore school counselors’ level of training in trauma, their understanding of components of trauma-informed practices, and their self-efficacy in leading this work.

Organizations such as the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), 2014 and NCTSN (2021) have established trauma-informed frameworks designed to promote systems of care; although these frameworks offer systems-level approaches, Wells et al. (in press) posited a framework that is specifically for building capacity in educators, the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework. The components of this framework were developed from an extant literature review (e.g., Brown et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2020; O’Grady, 2017) that highlighted the school context, neurobiology of trauma, and trauma-informed interventions, and from existing frameworks (NCTSN, 2021; SAMHSA, 2014) to describe knowledge and skills required for educators. These consist of (a) knowledge of social/emotional, cognitive, and physical impacts of trauma; (b) knowledge of trauma-informed classroom and school-wide practices; (c) knowledge of culturally responsive practices; (d) knowledge of social/emotional learning practices; (e) understanding one’s own identity and values; (f) practicing self-care; and (g) engaging in ongoing critical reflection about one’s role in the school. Together, these seven elements create the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework that is used for building capacity in educators to become trauma-informed and culturally responsive by developing their knowledge and skills.

Essential to exploring this framework is highlighting how it applies to school counselors. First, school counselors learn to be culturally responsive in their work to promote success for all students. The ASCA position statement on developing school counselors who are globally responsive and culturally competent (2021) describes how school counselors collaborate with all stakeholders in creating a school climate and culture that embraces cultural diversity. Furthermore, culturally relevant (Ladson-Billings, 2014) and culturally sustaining (Paris & Alim, 2017) practices are essential in promoting a school climate and culture that fosters cultural pluralism, which refers to how underrepresented groups within a society can maintain their distinctive cultural identities and values (Kwan, 2018). School counselors are prepared to lead discussions and initiatives around developing these inclusive practices.

Next, school counselors are also poised to lead social/emotional learning (SEL) programming. SEL curriculum is designed to help students develop healthy identities, regulate emotions, and build supportive relationships (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2021), such as through explicit teaching of empathy and interpersonal skills (Wiest-Stevenson & Lee, 2016). SEL aligns with the expertise of school counselors who are trained to provide classroom instruction to improve student mindsets and behaviors. To be culturally responsive, school counselors must also promote transformative SEL, which considers SEL through a lens of social justice. As Simmons (2021) noted, SEL “faces the risk of becoming white supremacy with a hug [emphasis original] if we do not apply an anti-oppressive, antiracist lens” (p. 30). To begin this work, Simmons recommended that educators reflect on their identity, positionality, power, and privilege. This is particularly important when considering certain types of trauma, such as historical (trauma that impacts entire communities), racial (trauma from one’s experience with racism and discrimination), and systemic (environments and institutions that engender trauma; Goldsmith et al., 2014; NCTSN, Justice Consortium et al., 2017).

Another essential component of a culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator is reflecting on one’s practice or engaging in reflexivity. D’Cruz et al. (2007) described reflexivity as a critical reflection on how one engages with social problems, recognizing that assumptions of social problems have ethical and practical consequences. School counselors are well positioned to engage in critical reflection of their work and in facilitating this reflection process for school personnel. A part of this process must include an examination of power dynamics between students and staff. This is particularly critical for those who work with students of color, as educators may have biases based on their cultures, values, and experiences that may reinforce systems of oppression (NCTSN, Justice Consortium et al., 2017). This is consonant with ASCA’s ethical standards, which state “School counselors develop awareness, knowledge and skills in how prejudice, power and various forms of oppression. . . affect self, students and all stakeholders” (ASCA, 2016a).

Last, a component to highlight in becoming a culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator is self-care, because exposure to others’ trauma places educators at risk for secondary traumatic stress or vicarious trauma (Hydon et al., 2015; Lawson et al., 2019). Vicarious trauma refers to the “covert cognitive changes that occur following cumulative exposure to another person’s traumatic materials” (NCTSN, Secondary Traumatic Stress Committee, 2011, p. 2). School counselors are key staff members to promote the practice of self-care for their schools. In this work, they will need to be mindful of the potential implications of the shared trauma that students and educators may have experienced. Shared trauma exists when students and counselors (and other educators) experience the same trauma (e.g., COVID-19), which can increase the risk of vicarious trauma (Bell & Robinson, 2013). This process of simultaneously managing one’s own trauma while helping students process theirs can negatively affect counselors’ well-being (Faust et al., 2008). Therefore, school counselors not only need to assist school staff in promoting self-care but need to practice these strategies themselves (Bell & Robinson, 2013).

Current Study

The goal of this study was to examine school counselors’ perceptions and knowledge of trauma-informed practices and the depth and breadth of training participants acquired in their school counseling preparation programs. Data on school counselors’ perceptions and knowledge will help schools, districts, and school counseling programs better understand the needs of school counselors and provide them with more tailored support and professional development. The following research questions are addressed in this study:

1. To what extent do school counselors believe that their school counseling preparation programs prepared them to promote and lead trauma-informed practices?

2. What are school counselors’ perceptions and knowledge of the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework?

3. What are school counselors’ beliefs about their role in promoting trauma-informed practices and their self-efficacy in performing those roles?

I employed a cross-sectional survey design (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019) for data collection. The questionnaire included personal, attitude, and behavioral questions to develop a contextualized understanding of participants’ perceptions and knowledge. Open-ended responses were coded to create themes, analyzed using the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework (Wells et al., in press), and compared to statistical results from closed-ended responses.

Method

Measure

Participants completed the School Counselor Perceptions and Knowledge of Trauma-Informed Practices questionnaire (see Appendix A), which was designed for this study because no instrument existed that addressed school counselor perceptions, knowledge, and self-efficacy specifically in trauma-informed practices. I followed processes outlined by Fowler (2014) to develop the questionnaire. First, I conducted a review of the literature, including on implementation of trauma-informed practices (Alexander & Hinrichs, 2019; Kataoka et al., 2018; Sink, 2016; Thomas et al., 2019) and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Next, I held a small focus group with practicing school counselors to “compare the reality about which respondents will be answering questions with the abstract concepts” (Fowler, 2014, p. 100) from the literature. Afterward, I drafted an initial set of questions that underwent a critical systematic review by a team of five educators with expertise in trauma and/or school counseling to establish face and content validity. Last, I conducted a field pretest with 10 practicing school counselors to test items. Based on reviews, some items were edited for clarity and rearranged for improved sequencing.

The questionnaire includes 23 items using a Likert-type rating scale, one all-that-apply item, four open-ended responses, and eight demographic items. For reliability statistics, the 23 rating scale items showed strong internal consistency (α = .89). I also calculated Cronbach’s alpha for individual variables: participants’ school counseling program quality (five items, α = .91), school counselor beliefs about their roles (three items, α = .72), self-efficacy in performing trauma-informed practices (four items, α = .78), understanding of cultural trauma (four items, α = .93), and the components of the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework (seven items, α = .88).

The open-ended response items and demographic questions helped to contextualize participant perceptions and knowledge of trauma-informed practices. The four open-ended items were “Describe the type of training you received on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress”; “Describe the type of training you received on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices”; “How could school counseling programs improve the instruction they provide on trauma-informed practices?”; and “In what ways has your own identity influenced your understanding of trauma or childhood traumatic stress, supporting students, and/or promoting school-wide initiatives on trauma-informed practices?”

Last, demographic items included work setting, years of experience, employment grade level, race/ethnicity, gender, and geographical location. Work setting was defined by counselors’ place of work categorized as rural, suburban, or urban. Years of experience as a school counselor included categories of 1–5 years, 6–10 years, 11–15 years, 16–20 years, and 21 or more years. The categories in employment grade level were early childhood, elementary school, K–eighth grade, middle school/junior high, high school, and all grades/K–12. Race was categorized as African American/Black, Asian/Asian American, Caucasian/White, Native American or American Indian, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, other, two or more races, or prefer not to say. Ethnicity asked whether participants identified as Hispanic/Latino or prefer not to say. Next, options to indicate gender were female, male, prefer to self-describe, or prefer not to say. Prefer to self-describe was provided to allow participants who are gender nonbinary to use their own preferred language. Finally, participants were asked about their geographical location by state of employment.

Recruitment and Procedure

This study received approval from my university’s Institutional Review Board, and I employed snowball sampling to collect responses from school counselors. To be eligible, participants must have been a practicing school counselor at the time of taking the questionnaire, and participants were encouraged to forward the questionnaire to other practicing school counselors. To recruit participants, I contacted all 50 state school counselor associations via email, requesting that they provide access to the questionnaire to their members, and eight associations agreed to distribute it. I also shared the questionnaire with the ASCA’s open forum, ASCA SCENE. Invitations included a description of the study and informed consent. Data were collected online via Qualtrics from January 2021 to March 2021. Participants were not compensated and could withdraw from the questionnaire at any time.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed in Microsoft Excel. For closed-ended data, I calculated descriptive statistics for rating scale and demographic items and conducted a one-way ANOVA. For open-ended data, I engaged in inductive analysis (Patton, 2002), which starts with observations and builds toward patterns until themes emerge. This approach was selected because it allows researchers “to understand the multiple interrelationships among dimensions that emerge from the data without making prior assumptions” (Patton, 2002, p. 56). To organize this analysis process, I followed several steps as outlined in Creswell and Guetterman (2019). First, I read each open-ended response to gain familiarity. Second, I divided the text into segments that related to the research questions. Next, I labeled segments with codes and reduced overlapping ones. Last, I collapsed codes into categories and then themes. I then applied a deductive approach, using the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework, to interpret the combined closed- and open-ended data in the discussion. I employed in-vivo coding by using participants’ own words to improve trustworthiness of open-ended findings (Saldaña, 2016). To ensure that themes, findings, and discussion were supported, the two remaining authors of the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework (Wells et al., in press) conducted an external audit (Creswell & Guetterman, 2019) of the data.

Participants

A total of 131 school counselors participated in the study (see Table 1 for participant demographics). The majority of the respondents were female (n = 109) and male (n = 18). One participant preferred to self-describe (response was “All”), and three preferred not to disclose.

Table 1.

Sociodemographic Characteristics of Participants.

Characteristic	n
Gender
Female	109
Male	18
Non-binary/third gender	0
Prefer to self-describe	1
Prefer not to say	3
Race
African American/Black	23
Asian American/Asian	0
Caucasian/White	97
Native American/American Indian	0
Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander	0
Two or more races	3
Other, please specify	1
Prefer not to say	7
Ethnicity
Hispanic/Latino	3
Not Hispanic/Latino	123
Prefer not to say	5
Local community
Rural	48
Suburban	47
Urban	36
Prefer not to say	0
Employment location (grade level)
Early childhood	1
Elementary school	28
Middle school/junior high	35
K–eighth grade	11
High school	44
K–12 all grades	12
Other, please specify	0
Prefer not to say	0
Years of experience
1–5 years	38
6–10 years	34
11–15 years	21
16–20 years	16
21 or more years	22
Prefer not to say	0
State of employment
West	9
Southeast	34
Midwest	58
Northeast	20
Southwest	2
Prefer not to say or no response	8

Participants worked in a mix of community settings, with most indicating rural (n = 48) and suburban communities (n = 47), followed by urban communities (n = 36). As far as grade level, the majority of participants worked in high schools (n = 44) and middle/junior high schools (n = 35), followed by elementary schools (n = 28). The remaining worked in K–eighth grade buildings (n = 11); K–12 buildings (n = 12) and an early childhood setting (n = 1).

Most respondents worked in the Midwest (n = 58), Southwest (n = 34), and Northeast (n = 20) regions. The remaining participants worked in the West (n = 9) and Southeast (n = 2). Eight respondents chose not to answer this question.

Most of the participants were newer counselors with 1–5 years of experience (n = 38) followed by 6–10 years (n = 34) and 11–15 years of experience (n = 21). Only 16 participants had 16–20 years of experience, while 22 participants had worked as a school counselor for 21 or more years.

The majority of the participants identified as Caucasian/White (n = 97). The remaining participants identified as African American/Black (n = 23), two or more races (n = 3), and other (n = 1; response was “Egyptian”). Seven preferred not to disclose. For ethnicity, the majority did not identify as Hispanic/Latino (n = 123); three identified as Hispanic/Latino and five preferred not to disclose. Last, for those who disclosed within open-ended items, 31 participants shared that they had previously experienced trauma.

Results

Quantitative Results

On a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = none at all to 5 = a great deal), 15.3% of participants (n = 20) indicated that they received no training in how to support students experiencing trauma/child traumatic stress in their school counselor education program, whereas 13% of participants (n = 17) indicated that they received a great deal or a lot of training. Participants were then asked how much training in trauma-informed practices was embedded into the program’s curriculum, and how much of the training was a part of the instructors’ pedagogy or teaching methods. Only 11.5% (n = 15) reported that a great deal or a lot was embedded into the curriculum, and 13.7% (n = 18) reported that a great deal or a lot was part of the instructors’ pedagogy or teaching methods.

Regarding other sources of training or information, approximately 84% of participants (n = 110) pursued additional training from educational conferences, 59.5% (n = 78) read resources from publications (e.g., journals, books), 53.4% (n = 70) attended professional development hosted by their school district, and 52.3% (n = 69) attended professional development hosted by community partners.

Next, on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = extremely dissatisfied to 5 = extremely satisfied), only 36.6% of participants (n = 48) were somewhat satisfied or extremely satisfied with their school counselor education program’s level of training on supporting students experiencing trauma/child traumatic stress, whereas 42% (n = 55) were somewhat dissatisfied or extremely dissatisfied. Moreover, only 26% of participants (n = 34) were somewhat satisfied or extremely satisfied with their program’s training on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practice, whereas 54.2% (n = 71) were somewhat dissatisfied or extremely dissatisfied.

When rating their beliefs on how much school counselors should be responsible for providing trauma-informed support, on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), 85.5% (n = 112) of participants selected somewhat agree or strongly agree that school counselors should provide trauma-informed prevention and intervention strategies to all students, 61.1% (n = 80) selected somewhat agree or strongly agree that school counselors should provide trauma-informed practices training to all teachers and staff, and 69.5% (n = 91) selected somewhat agree or strongly agree that school counselors should collect and analyze school-wide data to further refine and promote trauma-informed practices.

In terms of self-efficacy, participants rated their perceived confidence on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = very not confident to 5 = very confident). Approximately 80.2% (n = 105) were very confident or somewhat confident in their ability to recognize and respond to the symptoms of trauma or child traumatic stress, 88.5% (n = 116) were very confident or somewhat confident in determining when a student experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress falls outside their realm of expertise, and 40.1% (n = 53) were very confident or somewhat confident in leading school-wide training for teachers and staff on trauma-informed practices. Last, 52.3% (n = 69) were very confident or somewhat confident in collecting and analyzing data relevant to promoting trauma-informed practices.

When asked using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) whether they had a complete understanding of four types of trauma (i.e., child traumatic stress, historical trauma, systemic trauma, and racial trauma), 61% (n = 80) of participants selected strongly agree or somewhat agree with having a complete understanding of child traumatic stress, 57.7% (n = 75) selected strongly agree or somewhat agree with historical trauma, 54.6% (n = 71) selected strongly agree or somewhat agree with systemic trauma, and 50.8% (n = 66) selected strongly agree or somewhat agree to having a complete understanding of racial trauma.

Next, participants rated each of the seven components of the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all important to 5 = extremely important). Component 1, knowledge of social, emotional, cognitive, and physical impacts of trauma, yielded 96.9% (n = 127) of respondents rating it as extremely important or very important. For the second component, knowledge of trauma-informed classroom and school-wide strategies or practices, 96.1% (n = 124) of respondents indicated extremely important or very important. Component 3, knowledge of culturally responsive practices, yielded 93.9% (n = 123) of respondents rating it as extremely important or very important. For Component 4, knowledge of social/emotional learning practices, 97.7% (n = 127) of respondents indicated extremely important or very important. The fifth component, understanding one’s own identity and values, yielded 92.4% (n = 121) of respondents rating it as extremely important or very important. Component 6, practicing self-care, yielded 90% (n = 117) of respondents rating it as extremely important or very important. Finally, for Component 7, engaging in ongoing critical reflection about one’s role in the school, 95.4% (n = 125) of respondents indicate the rating of extremely important or very important.

To control for years of experience, which could impact the training participants received, I conducted a one-way, between-subjects ANOVA on years of experience on dependent variables of program quality, counselor beliefs, self-efficacy, and cultural trauma. It did not reveal a significant effect of years of experience at the p < .05 level on counselor beliefs, F(4, 126) = 2.34, p = .058; self-efficacy, F(4, 126) = .77, p = .550; or cultural trauma, F(4, 126) = 1.20, p = .315. However, I found a significant effect of years of experience at the p < .001 level on program quality, F(4, 126) = 6.67, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for the 1–5 years group (M = 8.34, SD = 2.77) was significantly different for 11–15 years (M = 5.90, SD = 2.49), 16–20 years (M = 5.88, SD = 2.53) and 21 or more years (M = 5.55, SD = 2.67) in terms of program quality. Taken together, those who were newer in the school counseling profession (i.e., 1–5 years of experience) perceived their school counseling programs to be of higher quality in terms of training on trauma-informed practices than those who had been in the field longer (i.e., 11 or more years of experience).

Qualitative Findings

The goal of the study was to examine school counselors’ perceptions and knowledge of trauma-informed practices, and their depth and breadth of training. Three themes emerged from the open-ended responses: inconsistent training, programmatic recommendations, and identity influences practices and vision. These themes and relevant subthemes are discussed below.

Theme 1: Inconsistent Training

Two of the four open-ended questions were designed to have participants discuss the training they received about trauma within their school counseling program. One question focused on the student level and the other on the school-wide level. Out of 131 participants, 111 responded to the question, “Describe the type of training you received on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress” and 103 responded to the question, “Describe the type of training you received on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices.” Participants had divergent training experiences in their school counseling programs, so two subthemes emerged: briefly referenced but nothing explicitly taught, and embedded across the curriculum.

Briefly Referenced but Nothing Explicitly Taught

Fifty respondents described either how no training was provided on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress in their school counseling programs, or how they pursued this training from other avenues. In describing program training, one high school counselor in Indiana stated that trauma “may have been briefly referenced, but nothing explicitly taught.” Often, participants stated that training came from their school or district after they started working as a school counselor. Some discussed how they pursued training on their own, such as through conferences, webinars, books, or courses taken after graduation. As one elementary school counselor in Ohio described, “During my initial coursework – none [training in trauma]. However, over the past 11 years I have sought out dozens and dozens of professional development opportunities on trauma-informed practices on my own.” Nine respondents reflected on how their lack of training might have been because they attended graduate school many years ago. For example, a high school counselor who had been in the field for more than 10 years shared: “I went to graduate school several years ago. I think the focus in recent years in the same program has changed significantly, as there is a shift leaning toward being trauma-informed.”

For the respondents who received any training in their school counseling programs (n = 52), it generally only addressed basic concepts of trauma, such as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) or only recognizing signs and symptoms of trauma. An elementary school counselor from Mississippi described how “it was basically an overview of what it was and how to notice signs. I did not receive much [in] techniques and how to support students dealing with traumatic stress.” This was echoed by a high school counselor in Ohio: “Most of the training involved recognizing symptoms and knowing appropriate referral resources.” As many participants described, these topics were often embedded in courses on crisis/grief counseling or play therapy. In placing training in crisis/grief counseling, one middle school counselor in Indiana described how “trauma education was characterized as receiving training in death/loss and divorce.”

A large majority of respondents (n = 80) also did not receive any training on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices in their school counseling program. As a high school counselor from Minnesota stated, “I don’t recall receiving any specific training on these initiatives.” This sentiment was reflected by counselors across grade level and geographical locations. Indeed, many respondents (n = 43) simply replied “none” or “N/A.” To describe the effect of not having this training, one K–12 school counselor from New York reported

not a lot in terms of taking the lead on creating a trauma-informed environment or educating others about it. I have tried in my current school, and it feels like I am in over my head. I definitely need more training on how to train/educate others, especially members of the admin team.

Some participants shared how they pursued this training on their own. As one middle school counselor from Indiana described, “I have not received formal training on leading school-wide initiatives. I use resources I find (books, articles, social media) to help develop how to do a school-wide initiative.” For some, “[training in school-wide initiatives] was later, while already in practice,” as noted by a middle school counselor from Ohio. As a high school counselor from Ohio stated, “I have received minimal on the job training . . . through my district.” A K–12 school counselor in Kentucky went into further detail:

Again, this training did not come through a program, but rather trainings after I became a school counselor. I have completed nearly 30 hours of trainings. . . that provide information on trauma-based care, identifying students with trauma, and training educators to be aware of the trauma students are facing.

Embedded Across the Curriculum

For the few who received more robust training in their school counseling programs on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress (n = 21), respondents appeared to appreciate it most when trauma was embedded across the curriculum. One high school counselor from Mississippi commented

It seemed like my instructors did a good job of incorporating adverse childhood experiences into each class. We would research different aspects of trauma and child traumatic stress and reflect on how we helped and worked with students we encountered who suffered from these types of incidences.

This was reflected in the response of one K–12 school counselor from New York: “I think the essence of being trauma-informed was present in many professors’ pedagogy and at the heart of a lot of the coursework, including most of my classes that weren’t school counseling specific.” This particular counselor also shared how supervision provided more opportunity for discussion of trauma in its different forms: “The feedback during supervision from internship/practicum was helpful because, of course, you cannot be prepared for all situations.” This was echoed by a K–8 counselor from Minnesota who said their program included “discussion of traumatic events in counselor supervision courses,” and a middle school counselor from New York, who stated that “most [training in trauma] was during my practicum experience where I processed situations with my supervisor.”

For the very few who did receive training on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices (n = 14), this training was not embedded throughout their program. One high school counselor in Indiana stated how “this education was very limited. I took one course on how to lead a counseling program, and at best we may have covered it as a part of that curriculum.” Often, the training focused on sharing data with teachers. One high school counselor from Mississippi described how

we were always told it is important to let our teachers know what to look out for and to make sure the student is reported to a school counselor for further assistance. We were also given ways to talk to teachers about ways they could help students struggling with this.

This was similar to the experience of a Minnesota high school counselor, who learned that school-wide initiatives were “mostly looking at ACEs and presenting that data to teachers."

Theme 2: Programmatic Recommendations

Out of 131 participants, 109 responded to the question, “How could school counseling programs improve the instruction they provide on trauma-informed practices?” Participants provided various strategies and approaches that school counseling programs could employ. For example, one Indiana high school counselor recommended “embed the training across coursework. Require specific trauma-informed counseling courses.” This idea resonated with many participants, including an elementary school counselor from Ohio who explained that “information needs to be part of the degree program, maybe specific coursework related to this, or embedded in the school counseling program.” Some would like “more real-life scenarios,” as one Kentucky middle school counselor suggested, or “role-playing scenarios,” as proposed by a Colorado middle school counselor.

In addition to how to include training in school counseling programs, others shared ideas on what to include. As an Ohio high school counselor said, programs should “dedicate time to childhood trauma—what it looks like, how it affects the brain and thus behavior, and what are methods to support children” and “have a class designated towards trauma-informed practices—look at the specific counseling skills, building school-wide initiatives, assessments, and what research says,” according to a high school counselor from Minnesota. Respondents pointed to a lack of knowledge in implementation of trauma-informed practices as a key area for improvement. An Indiana middle school counselor responded that programs need to “provide more direction on how to implement trauma-informed care/practice. Too often we learn about something, but the implementation part is left out.” This sentiment was also reflected by other participants. One Indiana middle school counselor highlighted a train-the-trainer model:

I’m doing restorative practices training . . . which is a train-the-trainer program that will give me the tools to provide the training to the rest of our staff. . . . I’d love a train-the-trainer type program for trauma-informed practices.

As aforementioned, some believed that the lack of training was because of how long ago they received their school counseling degree. As a Minnesota high school counselor stated, trauma “was not identified when I was in school—this was 22 years ago. It is probably better now.” One K–8 school counselor from Tennessee shared

School counseling programs, if they want their counselors to be prepared, must provide this instruction and training in the current society we reside within. Most children are experiencing trauma or stress-related trauma now due to the changing society and "norms.” For a school counselor to come out of a program today unprepared for what they will face on multiple levels in our schools is quite frankly irresponsible. My school counseling training was almost 20 years ago now.

Last, one middle school counselor from Wyoming shared that every single year the district would bring in a speaker about historical trauma. It was one of the only PD [professional development] activities they provided. Administration and teachers aren’t very receptive to talk about trauma and see it as an excuse. Though we’ve offered to do PD about trauma and its effects on students, it hasn’t been well received.

Others shared this idea of providing knowledge of trauma-informed practice to all staff. As one high school counselor from New York stated,

There needs to be more care and attention to embedding trauma-informed practices in the school system. It really needs to be systemic so there is a paralleled understanding of what trauma is and how to work with students to address their needs at every developmental stage. You need buy-in from all stakeholders (board, teachers, admin, staff, students/families, and community).

This focus on the need for stakeholder involvement was echoed by a middle school counselor from Ohio, who urged “to include a wider focus, not just the school counselor’s view, but principals, teachers, upper administration down to bus drivers, custodians. It is important to have a wider lens to make trauma-informed practices work."

Theme 3: Identity Influences Practices and Vision

Out of 131 participants, 83 responded to the question, “In what ways has your own identity influenced your understanding of trauma or childhood traumatic stress, supporting students, and/or promoting school-wide initiatives on trauma-informed practices?” The ways in which participants’ identity influenced their understanding of trauma-informed practices varied, particularly on whether respondents had experienced trauma before. As one high school counselor from Indiana stated, “I have some childhood traumatic stress in my own background, which influences my practices and my vision as to what school-wide practices should look like,” whereas a Florida elementary school counselor’s identity helped “enable me to understand the effects of trauma in an elementary environment.” Some participants discussed aspects of their past in further detail. For example, one high school counselor from Minnesota shared “I have an ACE score of 2. I come from a low-income family that may have experienced some historical trauma through poverty.” A school counselor from a K–8 environment in Tennessee disclosed

As a child, I experienced abuse from the adults in my life. Some was physical, some was emotional and some was systematic. I feel due to my own personal experience and my collective training and work experience I have a solid understanding. I will admit, being a White female, I do not understand completely or really at all what it is like to be racially traumatized.

The importance of reflecting on one’s own racial identity also was present for others, such as an elementary school counselor from Kentucky who shared that “as a White male, it’s important for me to continually review my implicit bias to make sure it doesn’t unintentionally affect how I support my students.”

Participants’ identity also encouraged them to become more effective school counselors. “My own identity has influenced me to do more research and provide the best possible care to my client,” an Indiana middle school counselor shared, while a middle school counselor from Wyoming described the limitations felt “I think my lack of childhood trauma makes it difficult to relate to what students may be currently experiencing. However, more recent family trauma does help me empathize and understand tragic loss better now.”

Discussion

School counselors received little training in trauma-informed practices during their graduate programs, and the school counseling programs that did provide instruction generally only focused on ACEs and/or recognizing the signs and symptoms of trauma. Although the focus on ACEs is important, this is only the first step in building a trauma-informed school. Consequently, participants often sought training in trauma-informed practices after graduating with their school counseling degree. Despite Rumsey and Milsom’s (2019) discussion of how school counselors can take on a leadership role in delivering ongoing trauma training, few participants were confident about leading school-wide training on trauma-informed practices. Further, participants were not confident in collecting and analyzing relevant data to evaluate trauma-informed programming, likely from a lack of training in appropriate evaluation tools (Kataoka et al., 2018).

In applying the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework, for those programs that included any training on trauma, school counseling programs were primarily focused on covering the first two components (i.e., knowledge of social/emotional, cognitive, and physical impacts of trauma; classroom and school-wide strategies or practices). Other components, including culturally responsive practices, social/emotional learning practices, and practicing self-care, were not mentioned by participants.

Despite not connecting it to learning from their programs, some participants described how their identity influenced their perceptions of trauma-informed practices and acknowledged how their own traumatic experiences may have led them to show more empathy to students. However, some also noted how their racial identity could become a barrier to full understanding of trauma experienced by students of color. These participants revealed that they engaged in reflexivity (D’Cruz et al., 2007), as they understood how their own cultural identity might influence how they would approach students in a culturally responsive manner. The need for additional professional development is still clear, however, because not all participants reported complete understanding of historical trauma, systemic trauma, or racial trauma. Knowing one’s limitations and engaging in reflexivity are helpful in pursuing equitable approaches to student needs (Iruka et al., 2020).

Although participants were able to acknowledge their individual limitations, participants did not articulate how their own traumatic experiences or identity could be contextualized within greater systems of oppression that educational institutions may represent, such as in how school policies and practices can negatively impact students who have experienced trauma (NCTSN, 2019; Thomas et al., 2019). Furthermore, although not directly asked, participants did not discuss engaging in self-care, even those who shared personal traumatic experiences. This may indicate that these participants still need to learn coping skills to address their own trauma before they can better support their students.

Ultimately, participants revealed that they have acquired only some of the competencies of being a culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator. Many can describe the impact of trauma and some trauma-informed interventions, but they lack the connection, for example, between trauma and SEL, self-care, and greater systems of oppression. This is likely a result of little training in trauma-informed practices from counseling preparation programs (Chatters & Liu, 2020) and from current districts and schools in which they serve. This likely is also in part because of a lack of cohesive frameworks or standards for trauma-informed practices in education (Thomas et al., 2019). To further develop their culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity, participants must learn the knowledge and skills associated with each competency.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study was limited in its sample size. Although the questionnaire was sent to each state’s school counseling association, many associations did not reply or denied the request to distribute the questionnaire to their members. Further, a validity concern is that responses were based on voluntary, self-reported perceptions of participants’ experiences in their school counseling programs, and some participants graduated more than 20 years ago. Future research is required to attend to these limitations. To improve the robustness of the participant sample, researchers could recruit participants using additional methods, such as working directly with school counseling programs to contact alumni or with school districts to contact school counselors serving in their schools. Finally, future studies could investigate the university faculty and administrator experience in designing school counselor preparation programs and how they have decided on the type and intensity of training in trauma-informed practices.

Implications for Practice

This study contributes to perspectives on trauma-informed practices from school counselors across different settings in the United States. School counseling programs have opportunities to expand the instruction provided in trauma-informed practices and what professional development opportunities are needed for practicing school counselors. However, no standard approach exists that all school counseling programs should take, especially if there is disagreement on the value and role of trauma-informed practices between school counseling programs and the local school districts where many of the school counseling program graduates are employed.

Counselor educators could incorporate training in trauma-informed practices comprehensively, either in a separate course or embedded strategically throughout existing requirements in counselor preparation programs. As described by Chatters and Liu (2020), well-developed trauma instruction should be incorporated to increase competency in working with those impacted by trauma. Chatters and Liu suggest that training should be integrated strategically into curricula, because counseling programs are already considered to be rather comprehensive in terms of frameworks from SAMHSA and the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework could be applied in program courses to help shape the lens through which students learn various aspects of school counseling. Programs also should provide foundational topics in trauma to teach students the impact of trauma on academic, behavioral, social/emotional, and cognitive outcomes, and teach essential school-wide strategies with a focus on implementation (Kataoka et al., 2018).

Universities may need to redesign some of their curriculum and train faculty in trauma-informed practices to integrate them into existing courses. To accomplish this, curriculum mapping (Jacobs, 1997) could be a helpful tool to recognize program deficiencies. The process for curriculum mapping is to identify content and skills taught in each course, then develop a map for each course that depicts both what is taught and when it is taught, revealing both gaps and opportunities to embed instruction on trauma-informed practices. Courses that focus on topics associated with system-wide strategies, such as at-risk populations, comprehensive school counseling, and strengths-based counseling, are perhaps the easiest courses to adapt (Sink, 2016), as are courses during practicum and internship.

School districts may also be interested in supporting the development of their current school counselors. If the infrastructure exists to provide professional development programs, the focus should not only be on foundational content on trauma. Districts could also provide opportunities to develop leadership capacity and data collection and analysis skills to help school counselors lead school-wide initiatives (Rumsey & Milsom, 2019); training might include developing robust protocols for collection and analysis of trauma-related data, and strategies for facilitating staff meetings and providing consultation to teachers.

Instruction in trauma-informed practices should not solely be embedded into school counseling programs or district-sponsored training for school counselors only. All educators, including teachers, school leaders, bus drivers, and district-level staff (Alexander & Hinrichs, 2019; Thomas et al., 2019), must also receive instruction so that all staff have a shared understanding of trauma and how to systematically address it. As the prevalence of trauma persists, the need for trauma-informed practices becomes increasingly important, and school counselors can promote and implement culturally responsive, trauma-informed practices to support all students and staff.

Finally, current school counselors can use the culturally responsive, trauma-informed educator identity framework to evaluate their own work. For example, school counselors can practice reflexivity regularly by reflecting on their identity, their position in the school, and how their actions may influence equity in student outcomes. School counselors also can continue to seek resources to increase their knowledge and skills. For example, NCTSN (2021) and ASCA (2016b) produce guidance documents for practitioners, such as on a system framework for trauma-informed practices. Other key resources include Cole et al.’s (2013) text on creating and advocating for trauma-sensitive schools that outlines processes to follow to implement trauma-informed practices.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Tommy Wells

Appendix

Questionnaire: School Counselor Perceptions and Knowledge of Trauma-Informed Practices.

Dear school counselor, You are invited to take part in a research study because you are a school counselor. Please read this form before choosing to participate.
• Purpose: To understand school counselors’ perspectives and knowledge on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress as well as leading school-wide initiatives through a questionnaire. • Risk and Benefits: There are no foreseeable risks involved in participating in this questionnaire other than those encountered in day-to-day life. You will receive no direct benefits from participating; however, your responses will contribute to a better of understanding of school counselor perceptions and knowledge of child traumatic stress and ability to promote school-wide initiatives. • Confidentiality: Your confidentiality will be maintained to the degree permitted by Qualtrics and programs used to store data on Bellarmine University’s Microsoft Office 365 platform. Although these steps will be taken to maintain security of your responses, confidentiality cannot be 100% guaranteed with any online data collection. • Voluntary Participation: Participation in this study is voluntary. If you decide to participate, the questionnaire will take approximately 10 minutes to complete. You are free to not answer any question or to withdraw from participation at any time without penalty. • Statement of consent: By selecting “yes” to the question below, you confirm that you have read the information provided and agree to participate in this research study. If you would like a copy of this form for your records or have any questions about the study, please email Dr. Tommy Wells at twells@bellarmine.edu.
Question Number	Question Text	Answer options
1	Do you voluntarily agree to participate in this study by completing the following survey?	Yes (1) No (2)—skips to end
2	Are you currently a school counselor?	Yes (1) No (2)—skips to end
This survey makes several references to trauma, child traumatic stress, and trauma-informed practices. For the purpose of this survey, trauma is defined as resulting from an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being (SAMHSA, 2020). Child traumatic stress is defined as occurring when children have been exposed to one or more traumas over the course of their lives and develop reactions that persist and affect their daily lives after the traumatic events have ended (NCTSN, 2021). Trauma-informed practices are defined as any practice that helps to understand, recognize, and respond to the effects of all types of trauma in the school setting.
4	During your school counselor training program, how much training in supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress did you receive?	A great deal (1) A lot (2) A moderate amount (3) A little (4) None at all (5)
5	How much of this training was embedded into the curriculum of your coursework?	A great deal (1) A lot (2) A moderate amount (3) A little (4) None at all (5)
6	How much of this training was part of your instructors’ pedagogy (i.e., teaching methods)?	A great deal (1) A lot (2) A moderate amount (3) A little (4) None at all (5)
7	Describe the type of training you received on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress.
8	Describe the type of training you received on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices
9	How satisfied are you with your school counseling program’s training on supporting students experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress?	Extremely satisfied (1)Somewhat satisfied (2)Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (3)Somewhat dissatisfied (4)Extremely dissatisfied (5)
10	How satisfied are you with your school counseling program’s training on leading school-wide initiatives on promoting trauma-informed practices?	Extremely satisfied (1)Somewhat satisfied (2)Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied (3)Somewhat dissatisfied (4)Extremely dissatisfied (5)
11	Where else have you learned about trauma-informed practices? (Select all that apply)	Conferences (1)Publications (e.g., journals, books, etc.) (2)Professional development provided by your district (3)Professional development provided by community partners (4)Other, please specify: (5)
12	How could school counseling programs improve the instruction they provide on trauma-informed practices?
13	To what extent do you believe the following areas are essential to implementing trauma-informed practices in the school setting?
13.1	Knowledge of social, emotional, cognitive, and physical impacts of trauma	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.2	Knowledge of trauma-informed classroom and school-wide strategies or practices	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.3	Knowledge of culturally responsive practices	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.4	Knowledge of social emotional learning practices	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.5	Understanding of one’s own identity and values	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.6	Practicing of self-care	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.7	Engaging in ongoing critical reflection about your role in the school	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
13.8	Other, please specify	Extremely important (1)Very important (2)Moderately important (3)Slightly important (4)Not at all important (5)
14	School counselors should be responsible for providing trauma-informed prevention and intervention strategies to all students.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
15	School counselors should be responsible for providing trauma-informed practices training to all teachers and staff in their buildings.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
16	School counselors should be responsible for collecting and analyzing school-wide data to further refine and promote trauma-informed practices in their building.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
17	How confident are you in your ability to recognize and respond to the symptoms of trauma or child traumatic stress?	Very confident (1)Somewhat confident (2)Neutral (3)Somewhat not confident (4)Very not confident (5)
18	How confident are you in determining when a student experiencing trauma or child traumatic stress falls outside your realm of expertise?	Very confident (1)Somewhat confident (2)Neutral (3)Somewhat not confident (4)Very not confident (5)
19	How confident are you in leading school-wide training for teachers and staff on trauma-informed practices?	Very confident (1)Somewhat confident (2)Neutral (3)Somewhat not confident (4)Very not confident (5)
20	How confident are you in collecting and analyzing data relevant to promoting trauma-informed practices?	Very confident (1)Somewhat confident (2)Neutral (3)Somewhat not confident (4)Very not confident (5)
21	I have a complete understanding of trauma and/or child traumatic stress.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
22	I have a complete understanding of historical trauma.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
23	I have a complete understanding of systemic trauma.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
24	I have a complete understanding of racial trauma.	Strongly agree (1)Somewhat agree (2)Neither agree nor disagree (3)Somewhat disagree (4)Strongly disagree (5)
25	In what ways has your own identity influenced your understanding of trauma or childhood traumatic stress, supporting students, and/or promoting school-wide initiatives on trauma-informed practices?
26	In which state do you work?
27	Which of the following best describes your current employment location?	Early childhood (1)Elementary school (2)Middle school/junior high (3)K–8th grade (4)High school (7)K–12 or all grades (5)Other, please specify: (6)Prefer not to say (8)
28	How many years of experience do you have as a school counselor?	1–5 years (1)6–10 years (2)11–15 years (3)16–20 years (4)21 or more years (5)Prefer not to say (6)
29	Where is the location of your current place of employment?	Urban (1)Suburban (2)Rural (3)Prefer not to say (4)
30	What is your preferred gender identity?	Male (1)Female (2)Non-binary/third gender (3)Prefer to self-describe (4)Prefer not to say (5)
31	Are you Hispanic or Latino?	Yes (1)No (2)Prefer not to say (3)
32	Please indicate your race. Check all that apply:	African American/Black (1)Asian/Asian American (2)Caucasian/White (3)Native American or American Indian (4)Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (5)Other, please specify (6)Prefer not to say (7)

Author Biography

Tommy Wells, Ed.D., is an assistant professor with the Annsley Frazier Thornton School of Education at Bellarmine University in Louisville, KY. Email: twells@bellarmine.edu

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